M.L.Hatzenbuehler, J.C.Phelan, and B.G.Link, “Stigma as a Fundamental Cause of Population Health Inequalities,”American Journal of Public Health103, no. 5 (2013): 813-821.
2.
B.Link and M.L.Hatzenbuehler, “Stigma as an Unrecognized Determinant of Population Health: Research and Policy Implications,”Journal of Health Politics, Policy, and the Law41, no. 4 (2016): 653-673.
3.
Hatzenbuehler, Phelan, and Link, supra note 1.
4.
P.W.Corrigan, et al., “Structural Stigma in State Legislation,”Psychiatric Services56, no. 5 (2005): 557-563; M.L.Hatzenbuehler, et al., “Structural Stigma and All-Cause Mortality in Sexual Minority Populations,”Social Science Medicine103 (2014): 33-41.
5.
B.G.Link and J.C.Phelan, “Conceptualizing Stigma,”Annual Review of Sociology27, no. 1 (2001): 363-385.
And, of course, that stigma “marks” is a product of the philology of the term itself, referencing “stigmata.” It is no coincidence, therefore, that the father of stigma studies, Erving Goffman, spent a significant portion of his seminal 1963 text discussing the significance of socially “visible” conditions in creating stigma (with important implications for experiences that remain invisible, such as invisible chronic illnesses or impairments). See E.Goffman, Stigma; Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963).
9.
B.G.Link and J.Phelan, “Stigma Power,”Social Science & Medicine103 (2014): 24-32.
10.
A.Kitta and D.S.Goldberg, “The Significance of Folklore for Vaccine Policy: Discarding the Deficit Model,”Critical Public Health27, no. 4 (2017): 506-514.
11.
M.Pantell, et al., “Social Isolation: A Predictor of Mortality Comparable to Traditional Clinical Risk Factors,”American Journal of Public Health103, no. 11 (2013): 2056-2062.
R.Parker and P.Aggleton, “HIV and AIDS-related Stigma and Discrimination: A Conceptual Framework and Implications for Action,”Social Science & Medicine57, no. 1 (2003): 13-24.
14.
D.S.Goldberg, “Job and the Stigmatization of Chronic Pain,”Perspectives in Biology & Medicine53, no. 3 (2010): 425-438.
15.
This analogy is chosen intentionally, as Goffman was actually a performance theorist; see also S.Burris, “Disease Stigma in U.S. Public Health Law,”The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics30, no. 2 (2002): 179-190.
16.
J.Schabert, et al., “Social Stigma in Diabetes,”The Patient-Patient-Centered Outcomes Research6, no. 1 (2013): 1-10.
17.
In a North American context, 67% of Native American women in a recent study reported experiencing health care discrimination connected to type 2 diabetes. See K.L.Gonzales, et al., “Perceived Racial Discrimination in Health Care, Completion of Standard Diabetes Services, and Diabetes Control Among a Sample of American Indian Women,”Diabetes Education40, no. 6 (2014): 747-755. There is an entire line of federal case law analyzing whether employment actions (often termination) on the basis of a worker’s type 2 diabetes violate the Americans with Disabilities Act. See also J.L.Browne, et al., “‘I Call it the Blame and Shame Disease’: A Qualitative Study about Perceptions of Social Stigma Surrounding Type 2 Diabetes,”BMJ Open3, no. 11 (2013): e003384; J.L.Browne, et al., “‘I’m Not a Druggie, I’m Just a Diabetic’: A Qualitative Study of Stigma from the Perspective of Adults with Type 1 Diabetes,”BMJ Open4, no. 7 (2014): e005625.
18.
M.Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
19.
D.Z.Buchman, A.Ho, and D.S.Goldberg, “Investigating Trust, Expertise, and Epistemic Injustice in Chronic Pain,”Journal of Bioethical Inquiry14, no. 1 (2017): 31-42.
Amy Vidali has pointed out that contemporary medical discourse on chronic gastrointestinal disorders commonly experienced by women resembles — in problematic ways — 19th century concepts of hysteria. See A.Vidali, “Hysterical Again: The Gastrointestinal Woman in Medical Discourse,”Journal of Medical Humanities34, no. 1 (2013): 33-57. See also D.E.Purvis, “A Female Disease: The Unintentional Gendering of Fibromyalgia Social Security Claims,”Texas Journal of Women & the Law21, no. 1 (2011): 85.
22.
Burris, supra note 15; M.Ramirez, et al., “Evaluation of Iowa’s anti-bullying Law,”Injury Epidemiology3, no. 1 (2016): 15.
23.
There is, of course, a large literature discussing the extent to which law can antecede or presage widespread cultural and social change. My view is that while this can happen, for a variety of reasons, law and policy is much more likely to follow such change than to precipitate it.
K.M.Hoffman, et al., “Racial Bias in Pain Assessment and Treatment Recommendations, and False Beliefs about Biological Differences Between Blacks and Whites,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences113, no. 16 (2016): 4296-4301.
26.
D.S.Goldberg, “On Ideas as Actors: How Ideas about Yellow Fever Causality Shaped Public Health Policy Responses in 19th-Century Galveston,”Canadian Bulletin of Medical History29, no. 2 (2012): 351-371.
27.
P.E.Farmer, et al., “Structural Violence and Clinical Medicine,”PLOS Medicine3, no. 10 (2006): e449.
28.
D.Whalen, M.Moss, and D.Baldwin, “Healing through Language: Positive Physical Health Effects of Indigenous Language Use,”F1000Research2016, 5:852; K.L.Walters and J.M.Simoni, “Reconceptualizing Native women’s Health: An “Indigenist” Stress-Coping Model,”American Journal of Public Health92, no. 4 (2002): 520-524; M.Sotero, “A Conceptual Model of Historical Trauma: Implications for Public Health Practice and Research,”Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice1, no. 1 (2006): 93-108.
29.
A.Bashford and C.Strange, “Thinking Historically about Public Health,”Medical Humanities33, no. 2 (2007): 87-92.
30.
L.Brown, K.Macintyre, and L.Trujillo, “Interventions to Reduce HIV/AIDS Stigma: What Have we Learned?”AIDS Education and Prevention15, no. 1 (2003): 49-69.
31.
H.Brody, The Healer’s Power (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
32.
S.Szreter and M.Woolcock, “Health by Association? Social Capital, Social Theory, and the Political Economy of Public Health,”International Journal of Epidemiology33, no. 4 (2004): 650-667.
33.
O.Rubin, “The Political Dimension of “Linking Social Capital”: Current Analytical Practices and the Case for Recalibration,”Theory and Society45, no. 5 (2016): 429-449.
34.
R.M.Puhl, T.Andreyeva, and K.D.Brownell, “Perceptions of Weight Discrimination: Prevalence and Comparison to Race and Gender Discrimination in America,”International Journal of Obesity32, no. 6 (2008): 992-1000.
35.
D.Z.Buchman, et al., “Neurobiological Narratives: Experiences of Mood Disorder Through the Lens of Neuroimaging,”Sociology of Health & Illness35, no. 1 (2013): 66-81.
