The current study examines the leadership behavior of Management-by-Exception by using quantitative and qualitative methods. By distinguishing between manifest (observable) and latent (unobservable) variables, the study enables the concept of Management-by-Exception to be clarified. A sample 480 senior police officers was used. The results support the notion that Management-by-Exception should be considered as a single latent variable. Qualitative analysis identified three manifest variables that are observable indicators of Management-of-Exception. Implications for investigating leadership using both quantitative and qualitative research methods are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Bass, B.M. (1985). Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectation . New York: Harper.
2.
Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J. (1990). Transformational Leadership Development: Manual for the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press.
3.
Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J. (1993). Transformational leadership: A response to critiques . In M.M. Chemers and R. Ayman, (Eds.). Leadership Theory and Research, Sydney: Academic Press , 49-76.
4.
Bass, B.M., Avolio, B.J. and Atwater, L. (1996). Transformational and transactional leadership of men and women. Applied Psychology: An international Review , 45(1), 5-34.
5.
Bentler, P.M. and Chou, C.P. (1987). Practical issues in structural modeling. Sociological Methods and Research, 16(1), August, 78-117.
6.
Berg, B.L. (1995). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
7.
Bollen, K.A. (1989). Structural Equations with Latent Variables. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
8.
Borgatta, E.F., Kercher, K. and Stull, D.E. (1986). Cautionary note on the use of principal components analysis. Sociological Methods and Research, 15, 160-168.
9.
Bryman, A. (1988). Quantity and Quality in Social Research. London: Unwin Hyman.
10.
Bryman, A. (1989). Research Method and Organization Studies. London: Routledge.
11.
Bryman, A., Stephens, M. and (Campo, C. (1996). The importance of context: Qualitative research and the study of leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), 353-370.
12.
Carless, S., Mann, L. and Wearing, A. (1995). A Causal Model of Transformational Leadership. SymposiumPaper presented to the Inaugural Australian Industrial and Organisation Conference. Sydney, 14-16 July.
13.
Chen, C.C. and Meindl, J.R. (1991). The construction of leadership images in the popular press: The case of Donald Burr and People Express. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36(4), 521-551.
14.
Conger, J.A. and Kanungo, R.N. (1992). Perceived behavioral attributes of charismatic leadership. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 24(1), 86-102.
15.
Curphy, G.J. (1991). An Empirical Investigation of Bass' (1985) Theory of Transformational and Transactional Leadership. Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, UMI Dissertation Services, 6200.
16.
Den Hartog, D.N., Van Muijen and Koopman, P.L. (1997). Transactional versus tranformational leadership: An analysis of the MLQ. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70, 19-34.
17.
Denzin, N.K. (1978). The Research Act. (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
18.
Dey, I. (1993). Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Routledge.
19.
Fielding, N.G. and Fielding, J.L. (1987). Linking Data. Beverly Hills, California: Sage.
20.
Filstead, W.J. (1979). Qualitative methods: A needed perspective in evaluation research. In T.D. Cook, and C.S. Reichardt, (Eds.). Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Evaluation Research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
21.
Glaser, B.G. and Strauss, A.L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.
22.
Goodwin, L.D. and Goodwin, W.L. (1985). Statistical techniques in AERJ articles, 1979-1983: The preparation of graduate students to read the educational research literature . Educational Researcher, 14(2), 5-11.
23.
Gorsuch, R.L. (1990). Common factor analysis versus component analysis: Some well and little known facts. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 33-39.
24.
Guba, E.G. and Lincoln, Y.S. (1982). Epistemological and methodological bases of naturalistic inquiry. Educational Communication and Technology Journal , 30(4), 233-252.
25.
Hair, J.R., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. and Black, W.C. (1995). Multivariate Data Analysis with Readings (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
26.
Hater, J.J. and Bass, B.M. (1988). Superiors' evaluation and subordinates' perceptions of transformational and transactional leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 695-702.
27.
Holsti, O.R. (1969). Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities . Reading MA: Addison-Wesley.
28.
Hoover, N.J. (1987). Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Test of the Model. Doctoral dissertation, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY.
29.
Hubbard, R. and Allen, S.J. (1987). A cautionary note on the use of principal components analysis: Supportive empirical evidence. Sociological Methods and Research, 16, 301-308.
30.
Hunt, J.G. (1991). Leadership: A New Synthesis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
31.
Insch, G.S., Moore, J.E., and Murphy, L.D. (1997). Content analysis in leadership research: Examples, procedures, and suggestions for future use. Leadership Quarterly , 8(1), 1-25.
32.
Jolson, M.A., Dubinsky, A.J., Yammarino, F.J. and Comer, L.B. (1993). Transforming the sales force with leadership. Sloan Management Review, Spring, 95-106.
33.
Jöreskog, K.G. and Sörbom, D. (1984). LISREL VI: Analysis of Linear Structural Relationships by the Method of Maximum Likelihood. National Educational Resources, Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc.
34.
Jöreskog, K.G. and Sörbom, D. (1989). LISREL 7: A Guide to the Program and Applications . Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc.
35.
Keller, R. (1992). Transformational leadership and the performance of research and development project groups. Journal of Management , 18, 489-501.
36.
Koh, W.L., Steers, R.M. and Terborg, J.R. (1995). The effects of transformational leadership on teacher attitudes and students performance in Singapore. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16, 319-333.
37.
Long, K.S. (1983). Covariance Structure Models: An introduction to LISREL. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
38.
Marsh, H.W. and Hocevar, D. (1985). Application of confirmatory factor analysis to the study of self-concept: First and higher order factor models and their invariance across groups. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 562-582.
39.
Meindl, J.R., Ehrlich, S.B. and Dukerich, J.M. (1985). The romance of leadership. Administrative Science Quarterly,30, 78-102.
40.
Miles, M.B. and Huberman, M.A. (1984). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of New Methods. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage .
41.
Northouse, P.G. (1997). Leadership: Theory and Practice. Sage Publications: London.
42.
Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Newbury Park CA: Sage Publications.
43.
Qualitative Solutions and Research ( 1996). User's Guide for Q.S.R. NUD.IST. Melbourne: Latrobe University.
44.
Richards, L. and Richards, T. (1994). From filing cabinet to computer. In A. Bryman, and R. Burgess , (Eds.). Analyzing Qualitative Data. London: Routledge.
45.
Snook, S.C. and Gorsuch, R.L. (1989). Component analysis versus common factor analysis: A Monte Carlo study. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 148-154.
46.
Tepper, B.J. and Percy, P.M. (1994). Structural validity of the multifactor leadership questionnaire. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54(3), 734-744.
47.
Tesch, R. (1992). Qualitative Research: Analysis Types and Software Tools. Hampshire: Falmer Press.
