There have been innumerable studies descnbing the activities, behaviors, skills, and circumstances which make leaders and/or managers effective. Leaders and managers in many cases are characterized as being one and the same. However, this paper explores the abilities, using a taxonomy from the discipline of education, that separate managers from leaders. The difference is the cognitive domain in which each functions. Managers function in the lower cognitive domain of knowledge, comprehension, and application. Leaders function in the higher cognitive domain of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Bass, B.M., Leadership and Performance BeyondExpectations , (New York: Free Press), 1985.
2.
Bennis, W.G. And B.Nanus, Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge, (New York: Harper & Row) 1985.
3.
Bloom, B. S., editor, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, (New York: Longman), 1956.
4.
Burns, J.M., Leadership. (New York: Harper & Row), 1978.
5.
Evans, M.G. "The Effects of Supervisory Behavior on the Path-Goal Relationships ," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1970, 5, pp. 277-298.
6.
Fiedler, F.E., "A Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness," in L. Berkowitz, Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ( New York: Academic Press), 1964.
7.
Fiedler, F.E., A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, (New York : McGraw Hill), 1967.
8.
Fiedler, F.E., "The Contribution of Cognitive Resources to Leadership Performance ," Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1986 , 16, pp. 532-548.
9.
House, R.J., "A Path-Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness," Administrative Science Quarterly,1971, 16, pp. 321-339.
10.
Hunt, J.G., Leadership: A New Synthesis , (New Park, CA: Sage), 1991.
11.
Kanter, R.M., "The Middle Manager as an Innovator," Harvard Business Review, July-August, 1982, pp. 95-105.
12.
Komaki, J., "Toward Effective Supervision: An Operation Analysis and Comparison of Managers at Work," Journal of Applied Psychology, 1986, 71, pp. 270-278.
13.
Kotter, J.P., The General Managers, (New York: Free Press), 1982.
14.
Lord, R.G. And K.J. Maher, Leadership and Information Processing: Linking Perceptions to Performance , (Boston: Unwin-Hyman), 1991.
15.
Luthans, F. and D.L. Lockwood, "Toward and Observation System for Measuring Leader Behavior in Natural Setting," in Leaders and Managers: International Perspectives on Managerial Behavior and Leadership. (New York: Pergamon Press), 1984, pp. 117-141.
16.
McCall, M.W. Jr. , and R.E. Kaplan, Whatever it Takes: Decision Makers at Work. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall), 1985.
17.
Mintzberg, H., The Nature of Managerial Work, (New York: Harper & Row), 1973.
18.
Peters, T.J. And R.H. Waterman, In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best Run Companies , (New York: Harper & Row), 1982.
19.
Peters, T.J. And N. Austin, A Passion for Excellence: The Leadership Difference ( New York: Random House), 1985.
20.
Schweiger, D.M., C.R. Anderson and E.A. Locke, "Complex Decision Making: A Longitudinal Study of Process and Performance ," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process, 1985, 36, pp. 245-272.
21.
Simon, H.A., "Making Managerial Decisions: The Role of Intuition and Emotion," Academy of Management Executive, 1987, 1, pp. 57-64.
22.
Stewart, R., Managers and Their Jobs, (London: MacMillan), 1967.
23.
Stewart, R., Contrasts in Management, (Maidenhead, Berkshire, England: McGraw-Hill, UK), 1976.
24.
Stewart, R., Choices for the Manager: A Guide to Understanding Managerial Work , (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall), 1982.
25.
Stogdill, R.M., Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of the Literature, ( New York: Free Press), 1974.
26.
Tichy, N.M. and M.A. Devanna, The Transformational Leader, (New York: John Wiley), 1986.
