This paper proposes a modification of McCormick's (2001) self-regulatory leadership confidence model by including an intervening variable referred to as the Ambiguity Tolerance Interface (ATI). After a review of theoretical approaches relevant to developing a framework of leadership at the interface of tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty, we introduce the ambiguity tolerance interface (ATI) and discuss a number of variables we identified as focal constructs that comprise the proposed ATI cluster. These variables include ambiguity tolerance, spirituality, creativity, aesthetic judgment and mindfulness. The paper concludes with a discussion of instruments that can be used to operationalize the variables of interest and the implications of ATI for leadership theory and praxis. Finally, we refocused existing research to address the influence of uncertainty on leaders in the dynamic global environment.
Audia, P.G., Locke, E.A., & Smith, K.G. (2000). The paradox of success: An archival and a laboratory study of strategic persistence following radical environmental change. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 837-853.
3.
Aycan, Z. (1997). Expatriate adjustment as a multifaceted phenomenon: Individual and organizational level predictors. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8, 434-456.
4.
Bambossy, G., Johnston, M., & Parsons, M. (1985). The assessment of aesthetic judgment ability. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 3, 63-79.
5.
Bandura, A. (1986). The social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
6.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co.
7.
Bandura, A. (2001). The changing face of psychology at the dawning of a globalization era. CanadienPsychology, 42, 12-24.
8.
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Applied Psychology: An InternationalReview, 51, 269-290.
9.
Bass, B. (1990). Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications (3rd ed.). New York: The Free Press .
10.
Bodner, T.E., & Langer, E.J. (2001, June). Individual differences in mindfulness: The mindfulness/mindlessness scale. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Society Conference , Toronto, Ontario.
11.
Budner, S. (1962). Intolerance of ambiguity as a personality variable . Journal of Personality, 30, 29-59.
12.
Burke, L.A., & Miller, A.K. (1999). Taking the mystery out of intuitive decision making . Academy of Management Executive, 13, 91-99.
13.
Chan, C., Burtis, J., & Bereiter, C. (1997). Knowledge-building as a mediator of conflict in conceptual change. Cognition and Instruction, 15, 1-40.
14.
Clampitt, P.G., & DeKoch, R.J. (2001). Embracing uncertainty: The essence of leadership . Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
15.
Denison, D.R., Hooijberg, R., & Quinn, R.E. (1995). Paradox and performance: Toward a theory of behavioral complexity in managerial leadership. Organization Science , 6, 524-540.
16.
Dollinger, M. (1983). The use of Budner's intolerance of ambiguity measure for entrepreneurial research. Psychological Reports, 53, 1019-1021.
17.
Dollinger, M., Saxton, T., & Golden, P.A. (1995). Intolerance of ambiguity and the decision to form an alliance. Psychology Reports, 77, 1197-1198.
18.
Domer, D. (1991). The investigation of action regulation in uncertain and complex situations. In J. Rasmussen & B. Brehmer (Eds.), Distributed decision making:
19.
Cognitive models for cooperative work (pp. 349-354). Chichester , England: Wiley.
20.
Ehrlich, S., Meindl, J., & Viellieu, B. (1990). The charismatic appeal of a transformational leader: An empirical case of a small, high technology contractor. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 4, 229-248.
21.
Elliott, J., & Clement, S. (1991). Executive leadership. Arlington, VA: Cason Hall & Co. Publishers.
22.
Emmison, M., & Smith, P. (2000). Researching the visual. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
23.
Ettlie, J.E., & O'Keefe, R.D. (1982). Innovative attitudes, values, and intentions in organizations. Journal of Management Studies, 19, 163-182.
24.
Flavell, J. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist , 34, 906-911.
25.
Frenkel-Brunswik, E. (1948). Tolerance of ambiguity as an emotional and perceptual personality variable. Journal of Personality, 18, 108-143.
26.
Frese, M., & Zapf, D. (1994). Action as the core of work psychology: A German approach. In H. C. Triandis & M. D. Dunnette (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and
Furnham, A., & Ribchester, T. (1995). Tolerance of ambiguity: A review of the concept, its measurement, and applications. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 14, 179-199.
29.
Gagliardi, P. (1990). Artifacts and pathways and remains of organizational life. (pp. 3-38). In P. Gagliadi (Ed.). Symbols and artifacts. Berlin: de Gruyter.
30.
Gilbert, D.T. (1991). How mental systems believe. American Psychologist, 46, 107-119.
31.
Ghosh, D. (1994). Tolerance for ambiguity, risk preference, and negotiator effectiveness. Decision Sciences, 25, 263-280.
32.
Goleman, D. (1998). What makes a leader?Harvard Business Review, November-December, 93-102.
33.
Graen, G., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly , 6, 2, 219-247.
34.
Gudykunst, W.B. (1995). Anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory: Current status. In R. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural communication theory (pp. 8-58). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publishing.
35.
Gudykunst, W.B. (1998). Applying anxiety\uncertainty management (AUM) Theory to intercultural adjustment training. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22, 227-250. Retrieved on November 26, 2002, from Science Direct database.
36.
Gudykunst, W. B., & Mody, B. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of international and intercultural communication (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
37.
Hartsfield, M. (2003). The internal dynamics of transformational leadership: The effects of spirituality, emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on transformational leadership. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Regent University , Virginia Beach, VA.
38.
Hooijberg, R. (1996). A multidirectional approach toward leadership: An extension of the concept of behavioral complexity. Human Relations, 49, 917-946
39.
Kayworth, T.R., & Leidner, D.E. (2001/2002, Winter). Leadership effectiveness in global virtual teams. Journal of Management InformationSystems, 18, 7-40.
40.
Kahn, B.E. & Sarin, R.K. (1988). Modeling ambiguity in decisions under uncertainty . Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 265-272.
41.
Kellett, J., Humphrey, R., & Sleeth, R. (2002). Empathy and complex task performanceTwo routes to leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 13, 523-544.
42.
Kendall, J.I. DeGross, & K. Lyytinen (Eds.), The impact of computer supported technologies on information systems development (pp. 115-132). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
43.
Klenke, K. (1992). Leadership processes in computer mediated work groups: Implications of information systems development and leadership studies . InK. E.
44.
Klenke, K. (2003). The leader's new work: Managing paradox. Paper accepted for presentation at the 9th Annual Conference of the International Leadership Association, Guadalajara, Mexico, November 6-8.
45.
Klenke, K., & Chaharbaghi, K. (2002). Invisible leadership and the X-factor. Unpublished manuscript.
46.
Kuhn, D. (2000). Metacognitive development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 178-181.
47.
Kuhn, D., & Pearsall, S. (1998). Relations between metastrategic knowledge and strategic performance. Cognitive Development, 13, 227-247.
48.
Langer, E. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
49.
Langer, E. (1997). The power of mindful learning. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
50.
Latham, G.P., & Locke, E.A. (1991). Self-regulation through goal setting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 212-247.
51.
Latham, G.P., & Seijts, G.H. (1999). The effects of proximal and distal goals on performance on a moderately complex task. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 20, 421-429.
52.
Locke, E.A. (1991). The motivation sequence, the motivation hub and the motivation core. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 288-299.
53.
Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall .
54.
Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist , 57, 705-717.
55.
Lord, R.G., & Maher, K.J. (1991). Leadership and information processing: Linking perceptions and performance. Boston: Unwin Hyman.
56.
MacDonald, A.P. (1970). Revised scale for ambiguity tolerance: Reliability and validity. Psychological Reports, 26, 791-798.
57.
Mayer, R., Davis, J., & Schoorman, D. (1995). An integrative model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20, 3, 709-734.
58.
McCormick, M.J. (2001). Self-efficacy and leadership effectiveness: Applying social cognitive theory to leadership. The Journal of LeadershipStudies, 8, 22-33.
59.
McKnight, H., Cummings, L., Chervany, N. (1998). Initial trust formation in new organizational relationships. Academy of Management Review, 23, 3, 473-490.
60.
Mirvis, P. (1997). "Soul work" in organizations. Organization Science, 8, 2, 193-206
61.
Morgan, G. (1997). Images of organization (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.
62.
Norton, R. (1975). Measurement of ambiguity tolerance. Journal of Personality Assessment, 39, 607-619.
63.
Nutt, P.C. (1993). Flexible decision styles and the choice of top executives. Journal of Management Studies, 30, 695-721.
64.
Oddou, G., & Mendenhall, M. (1984). Person perception in cross-cultural settings: A Review of cross-cultural and related cognitive literature. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 8, 77-96.
65.
Paloutzin, R., & Ellison, C. (1983). Loneliness, spiritual well-being, and quality of life. In L. Peplau & D. Perlman (eds.) Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy. New York: Wiley Interscience.
66.
Powell, J. (2002). Personal communication.
67.
Seligman, A.A. (1998). Trust and Sociability: On the limits of confidence and role expectations. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 57, 391-404.
68.
Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline. New York : Doubleday.
69.
Snyder, C.R., Sigmon, D.R., & Feldman, D.B. (2002). Hope for the sacred and vice versa: Positive goal-directed thinking and religion. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 234-238.
70.
Spilka, B. (1993). Spirituality: Problems and directions in operationalizing a fuzzy concept. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association, Toronto, CA.
71.
Stogdill, R. (1963). Leader behavior description questionnaire-form XII. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, Bureau of Business Research.
72.
Strati, A. (1992). Aesthetic understanding in organizational life . Academy of Management Review, 17, 3, 568-581.
73.
Strati, A. (1999). Organizations and aesthetics. London: Sage.
74.
VandenBos, G.R., & Bulatao, E.Q. (2000). Observations on entrepreneurial psychologists . The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 4, 97-102.
75.
Winters, D., & Latham, G. (1996). The effect of learning versus outcome goals on a simple versus a complex task. Group and Organization Management , 21, 236-250.
76.
Zinnbauer, B., Pargament, K., & Scott, A. (1999). The emerging meanings of religiousness and spirituality: Problems and prospects. Journal of Personality, 67, 6,889-919.
