This paper presents the current knowledge on ridership scenarios for autonomous vehicles and shuttles within the context of children’s mobility. Perspectives from parents, caregivers, and schools provide a unique use case that needs further attention from vehicle manufacturers and policy regulatory agencies. Social benefits of and barriers to adoption, willingness, and acceptance as well as hypothetical use scenarios are discussed from a family mobility perspective. Relevant accounts from other forms of automation are presented in parallel to highlight the challenges and opportunities for using autonomous and automated vehicles to enhance parent-child mobility practice. Future research opportunities are discussed to highlight the need to better understand barriers to adoption from parent, family, and school perspectives as well as potential practical contributions and real-world implications.
AyalaA. M.LeeY.-C. (2021). Parent’s willingness to transport children in autonomous vehicles based on seating requirements. Transportation Research Board 100th Annual Meeting.
3.
AyoubJ.MasonB.MorseK.KirchnerA.TumanyanN.ZhouF. (2020). Otto: An Autonomous School Bus System for Parents and Children. Extended Abstracts of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1145/3334480.3382926
4.
BansalP.KockelmanK. M. (2017). Forecasting Americans’ long-term adoption of connected and autonomous vehicle technologies. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 95, 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2016.10.013
5.
BrellT.PhilipsenR.ZiefleM. (2019). SCARy! Risk Perceptions in Autonomous Driving: The Influence of Experience on Perceived Benefits and Barriers. Risk Analysis, 39(2), 342–357. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13190
6.
ClamannM. (2020). Automated Vehicles and Schools: An Analysis of Deployment Issues. In NunesI. L. (Ed.), Advances in Human Factors and Systems Interaction (pp. 209–220). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20040-4_19
FagnantD. J.KockelmanK. (2015). Preparing a nation for autonomous vehicles: Opportunities, barriers and policy recommendations. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 77, 167–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.04.003
10.
FaulknerG. E.RichichiV.BuliungR. N.FuscoC.MoolaF. (2010). What’s “quickest and easiest?”: Parental decision making about school trip mode. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 7(1), 62. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-7-62
11.
FosterS.VillanuevaK.WoodL.ChristianH.Giles-CortiB. (2014). The impact of parents’ fear of strangers and perceptions of informal social control on children’s independent mobility. Health & Place, 26, 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.11.006
12.
FrancisJ.MartinK.WoodL.FosterS. (2017). `I’ll be driving you to school for the rest of your life’: A qualitative study of parents’ fear of stranger danger. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 53, 112–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.07.0040272-4944/
FyhriA.HjortholR.MackettR. L.FotelT. N.KyttaM. (2011). Children’s active travel and independent mobility in four countries Development, social contributing trends and measures. Transport Policy, 18, 703–710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2011.01.005
15.
Graf-VlachyL.BuhtzK.KönigA. (2018). Social influence in technology adoption: Taking stock and moving forward. Management Review Quarterly, 68(1), 37–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-0170133-3
16.
GreenblattJ. B.ShaheenS. (2015). Automated Vehicles, On-Demand Mobility, and Environmental Impacts. Current Sustainable/Renewable Energy Reports, 2(3), 74–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40518-015-0038
17.
HabouchaC. J.IshaqR.ShiftanY. (2017). User preferences regarding autonomous vehicles. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 78, 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2017.01.010
HamS. A.MartinS.KohlH. W. (2008). Changes in the Percentage of Students Who Walk or Bike to School—United States, 1969 and 2001. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 5(2), 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.5.2.205
20.
HandS. H.LeeY.-C. (2018). Who would put their child alone in an autonomous vehicle? Preliminary look at gender differences. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 62(1), 256–260. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931218621059
21.
HarperC. D.HendricksonC. T.MangonesS.SamarasC. (2016a). Estimating potential increases in travel with autonomous vehicles for the non-driving, elderly and people with travel-restrictive medical conditions. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 72, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2016.09.003
22.
HarperC. D.HendricksonC. T.MangonesS.SamarasC. (2016b). Estimating potential increases in travel with autonomous vehicles for the non-driving, elderly and people with travel-restrictive medical conditions. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 72, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2016.09.003
HowardD.DaiD. (2013). Public Perceptions of Self-driving Cars: The Case of Berkeley, California. Transportation Research Board 93rd Annual Meeting, 1–21.
25.
JingP.DuL.ChenY.ShiY.ZhanF.XieJ. (2021). Factors that influence parents’ intentions of using autonomous vehicles to transport children to and from school. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 152, 105991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2021.105991
26.
KoppelS.LeeY.-C.Hafetz MirmanJ.PeirisS.TremouletP. (2021). Key factors associated with Australian parents’ willingness to use an automated vehicle to transport their unaccompanied children. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 78, 137–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2021.02.010
27.
LeeY.-C. (2020). Parenting in the Digital Contexts: Are Parents Ready to Use Automated Vehicles to Transport Children?Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92753
28.
LeeY.-C.HandS. H.LillyH. (2020). Are parents ready to use autonomous vehicles to transport children? Concerns and safety features. Journal of Safety Research, 72, 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2019.12.025
29.
LeeY.-C.MirmanJ. H. (2018). Parents’ perspectives on using autonomous vehicles to enhance children’s mobility. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 96, 415–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2018.10.001
30.
MacyM. L.ClarkS. J.FreedG. L.ButchartA. T.SingerD. C.SassonC.MeurerW. J.DavisM. M. (2011). Carpooling and Booster Seats: A National Survey of Parents. Pediatrics, 129(2), 290–298. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-0575
31.
McDonaldN. C. (2007). Active Transportation to School, Trends Among U.S. Schoolchildren, 1969 –2001. American Journal Preventative Medicine, 32(6), 8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2007.02.022
32.
MikkelsenM. R.ChristensenP. (2009). Is Children’s Independent Mobility Really Independent? A Study of Children’s Mobility Combining Ethnography and GPS/Mobile Phone Technologies. Mobilities, 4(1), 37–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450100802657954
33.
MounceR.NelsonJ. D. (2019). On the potential for one-way electric vehicle car-sharing in future mobility systems. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 120, 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2018.12.003
34.
National Center for Statistics and Analysis. (2019). Children: 2017 data (DOT HS 812 719). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
OstrovskyM.SchwarzM. (2019). Carpooling and the economics of self-driving cars. Proceedings of the 2019 ACM Conference on Economics and Computation, 581–582. https://doi.org/10.1145/3328526.3329625
37.
PickrellT. M. (2011). Occupant Restraint Use in 2009: Results From the National Occupant Protection Use Survey Controlled Intersection Study. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 57(6), 688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2011.04.018
RosenbloomS. (1987). The Impact of Growing Children on Their Parents’ Travel Behavior: A Comparative Analysis. Transportation Research Record, 1135, 17–25.
40.
RosenbloomS.BurnsE. (1994). Why Working Women Drive Alone: Implications for Travel Reduction Programs. Transportation Research Record, 1459, 34–45.
41.
SalonenA. O.HaavistoN. (2019). Towards autonomous transportation. Passengers’ experiences, perceptions and feelings in a driverless shuttle bus in Finland. Sustainability, 11(3), 588–607. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030588
42.
SchoeppeS.DuncanM. J.BadlandH. M.AlleyS.WilliamsS.RebarA. L.VandelanotteC. (2015). Socio-demographic factors and neighbourhood social cohesion influence adults’ willingness to grant children greater independent mobility: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 690. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-2053-2
43.
SlowikP.SharpeB. (2018). Automation in the long haul: Challenges and opportunities of autonomous heavy-duty trucking in the United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation, 1–30.
44.
SparrowR.HowardM. (2017). When human beings are like drunk robots: Driverless vehicles, ethics, and the future of transport. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 80, 206–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2017.04.014
45.
StoneM.LarsenK.FaulknerG. E. J.BuliungR. N.Arbour-NicitopoulosK. P.LayJ. (2014). Predictors of driving among families living within 2km from school: Exploring the role of the built environment. Transport Policy, 33, 8–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2014.02.001
46.
TasoH.-S. J.BothaJ. L. (2003). Definition and Evaluation of Bus and Truck Automation Operations Concepts: Final Report (California PATH Research Report UCB-ITS-PRR-2003-19). UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY.
47.
TremouletP. D.SeacristT.Ward McIntoshC.LoebH.DiPietroA.TushakS. (2020). Transporting Children in Autonomous Vehicles: An Exploratory Study. Human Factors, 62(2), 278–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720819853993
WadudZ.MacKenzieD.LeibyP. (2016). Help or hindrance? The travel, energy and carbon impacts of highly automated vehicles. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 86, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.12.001
50.
WilliamsA. F.FergusonS. A. (2002). Rationale for graduated licensing and the risks it should address. Injury Prevention, 8, ii9–ii16.
