Calcaneal fractures have been treated by closed methods since the time of Hippocrates. The understanding of the anatomy, injury mechanism, and classification of these fractures has advanced since surgical treatment was introduced in 1850. Despite 145 years of different treatment techniques, no consensus has been reached. Investigation into the injury patterns, anatomy, and outcomes has lead to the advances reviewed in this article.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
. AitkenA.P.: Fractures of the os calcis—treatment by closed reduction. Clin Orthop., 30:67–75, 1963
2.
. BellC.: Statistics of operations in Mr. Bell's ward, Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh. Edinburgh Med.J., 27:1100, 1881–1882
3.
. BertelsenA.HasnerE.: Primary results of treatment of fractures of the calcaneus. Acta Radiol., 31:85–91, 1949
4.
. BezeH.MassartD.D.FourquetJ.P.TaziF.F.: The operative treatment of intraarticular calcaneal fractures: indications, techniques and results in 257 cases. Clin. Orthop., 290: 55–59, 1993
5.
. BohlerL.: Diagnosis, pathology and treatment of fractures of the os calcis. J. Bone Joint Surg., 13:75–89, 1931
6.
. BrodenB.: Roentgen examination of the subtaloid joint in fractures of the calcaneus. Acta Radiol., 31:85–91, 1949
7.
. BurdeauxB.D.Jr.: Fractures of the calcaneus. InOperative Orthopaedics, Vol. 3. ChapmanM.W.MadisonM. (eds.), Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott, 1988, pp. 1723–1736
8.
. BurdeauxB.D.: Reduction of calcaneal fractures by the McReynolds medial approach technique and its experimental basis. Clin. Orthop., 177:87–103, 1983
9.
. CarrJ.B.HamiltonJ.J.BearL.S.: Experimental intraarticular calcaneal fractures: anatomic basis for a new classification. Foot Ankle, 10(2):81–87, 1989
10.
. ClarkL.G.: Fracture of the os calcis. Lancet, 1:403, 1855
11.
. CottonF.J.: Os calcis fracture. Ann. Surg., 64:480–488, 1916
12.
. CottonF.J.WilsonL.T.: Fractures of the os calcis. Boston Med. Surg.J., 159(18):559–565, 1908
. Essex-LoprestiP.: The mechanism, reduction technique, and results in fractures of the os calcis. Br.J. Surg., 39:395–419, 1952
16.
. GiachinoA.A.UhthoffH.K.: Intra-articular fractures of the calcaneus. J. Bone Joint Surg., 71A(5):784–787, 1989
17.
. GiannestrasN.SammarcoG.J.: Fracture and dislocation of the foot. InFractures, Vol. 3. RockwoodC.GreenD. (eds.), Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott, 1975, pp. 1400–1489
. HermannO.J.: Conservative therapy for fractures of the os calcis. J. Bone Joint Surg., 19:709–718, 1937
25.
. HutchinsonF.IIIHuebnerM.K.: Treatment of os calcis fractures by open reduction and internal fixation. Foot Ankle Int., 15(5):225–232, 1994
26.
. InmanV.T.: Joints of the ankle.Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1976, pp. 35–43
27.
. JamesE.T.R.HunterG.A.: The dilemma of painful old os calcis fractures. Clin. Orthop., 177:112–115, 1983
28.
. LangdonI.J.KerrP.S.AtkinsR.M.: Fractures of the calcaneum: the anterolateral fragment. J. Bone Joint Surg., 76B(2):303–302, 1994
29.
. LetournelE.: Open treatment of acute calcaneal fractures. Clin. Orthop.290:60–67, 1993
30.
. LindsayW.R.N.DewarF.P.: Fractures of the os calcis. Am.J. Surg., 95:555–576, 1958
31.
. LowrieI.G.FinlayD.B.BrenkelI.J.GreggP.J.: Computerized tomographic assessment of the subtalar joint in calcaneal fractures. J. Bone Joint Surg., 70B(2):247–250, 1988
32.
. ManoliA.: Compartment syndromes of the foot: current concepts. Foot Ankle, 10(6):340–344, 1990
33.
. ManoliA.WeberT.G.: Fasciotomy of the foot: an anatomical study with special reference to release of the calcaneal compartment. Foot Ankle, 10(5):267–275, 1990
34.
. MartinezS.HerzenbergJ.E.AppleJ.S.: Computed tomography of the hindfoot. Orthop. Clin. North Am., 16(3):481–496, 1985
35.
. MillerW.: Pain and impairment considerations following treatment of disruptive os calcis fractures. Clin. Orthop., 177:82–86, 1983
36.
. MyersonM.: Diagnosis and treatment of compartment syndrome of the foot. Orthopaedics, 13(7):711–717, 1990
37.
. NobleJ.McQuillanW.M.: Early posterior subtalar fusion in the treatment of fractures of the os calcis. J. Bone Joint Surg., 61B(1):90–93, 1979
38.
. OmotoH.SakuradaK.SugiM.NakamuraK.: A new method of manual reduction for intra-articular fracture of the calcaneus. Clin. Orthop., 177:104–111, 1983
39.
. PalmerI.: The mechanism and treatment of fractures of the calcaneus. J. Bone Joint Surg., 30A(1):2–8, 1948
40.
. PennalG.F.YadovM.P.: Operative treatment of comminuted fractures of the os calcis. Clin. Orthop., 4:197–211, 1973
41.
. PerryJ.: Anatomy and biomechanics of the hindfoot. Clin. Orthop., 177:9–15, 1983
42.
. PescatoriG.FioritiM.: The Ilizarov apparatus in the treatment of thalamic fractures of the calcaneus. Ital.J. Orthop. Traumatol., 15(3):302–314, 1989
43.
. PozoJ.L.KirwanE.O'G.JacksonA.M.: Long-term results of conservative management of severely displaced fractures of the calcaneus. J. Bone Joint Surg., 66B(3):386–390, 1973
44.
. ReuterM.W.CalhounJ.H.: Intra-articular fractures of the calcaneus—the UTMB experience. Paper presented at the winter meeting of the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society, Washington, DC, 1992
. RossS.D.K.SowerbyM.R.R.: The operative treatment of fractures of the os calcis. Clin. Orthop., 199:132–143, 1985
48.
. RoweC.R.SakellaridesH.FreemanP.SorbieC.: Fractures of os calcis—a long-term follow-up study of one hundred forty-six patients. J.A.M.A., 184:920–923, 1963
49.
. SandersR.: 3-D imaging of calcaneal fractures. Paper presented at the summer meeting of the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society, Sun Valley, Idaho, 1989
50.
. SandersR.FortinP.DiPasqualeT.WallingA.: Operative treatment in 120 displaced intra-articular calcaneal fractures. Results using a prognostic computed tomography scan classification. Clin. Orthop., 290:87–95, 1993
51.
. SandersR.HansenS.T.Jr.McReynoldsI.S.: Trauma to the calcaneus and its tendon. Fracture of the calcaneus. InDisorders of the Foot and Ankle, Vol. 1, 2nd Ed.JahssM.H. (ed.), Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders, 1991, pp. 2326–2354
52.
. SegalD.MarshJ.L.LeiterB.: Clinical application of computerized axial tomography (CAT) scanning of calcaneus fracture. Clin. Orthop., 99:114–123, 1985
53.
. ShereffM.J.JohnsonK.A.: Radiographic anatomy of the hindfoot. Clin. Orthop., 177:16–22, 1983
54.
. SkinnerS.R.BarnesL.A.PerryJ.ParkerJ.: The relationship of gait velocity to the rate of lower extremity loading and unloading. Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc., 5:273, 1980
55.
. SmithR.W.StapleT.W.: Computerized tomography (CT) scanning technique for the hindfoot. Clin. Orthop., 177:34–38, 1983
56.
. SoeurR.RemyR.: Fractures of the calcaneus with displacement of the thalamic portion. J. Bone Joint Surg., 57B:413–421, 1975
57.
. SolomonM.A.GilulaL.A.OloffL.M.: CT scanning of the foot and ankle: 2. Clinical applications and review of the literature. Am.J. Radiol., 146(6):1204–1214, 1986
58.
. StephensonJ.R.: Displaced fractures of the os calcis involving the subtalar joint: the key role of the supermedial fragment. Foot Ankle, 4(2):91–101, 1983
59.
. StephensonJ.R.: Treatment of displaced intra-articular fractures of the calcaneus using medial and lateral approaches, internal fixation and early motion. J. Bone Joint Surg., 69A:115–130, 1987
60.
. ThompsonK.R.: Treatment of comminuted fractures of the calcaneus by triple arthrodesis. Orthop. Clin. North Am., 4(1): 189–191, 1973
61.
. ThompsonK.R.FriesenC.M.: Treatment of comminuted fractures of the calcaneus by primary triple arthrodesis. J. Bone Joint Surg., 41A(8):1423–1436, 1959
62.
. ViladetA.LorenzoJ.C.SalazarJ.RodriguezR.: The subtalar joint: embryology and morphology. Foot Ankle, 5:54–65, 1984
63.
. WarrickC.K.BremnerA.E.: Fractures of the calcaneum. J. Bone Joint Surg., 35B(1):33–45, 1985
64.
. WidenA.: Fracture of the calcaneus. Acta Chir. Scand. [Suppl.]., 188:1954
65.
. ZayerM.: Fracture of the calcaneus. A review of 110 fractures. Acta. Orthop. Scand., 40:530–542, 1969
66.
. ZirnaH.AkinoM.D.: The CAT scan: an aid in evaluating calcaneal fractures. J. Foot Surg., 25:270–272, 1986
67.
. ZwippH.TscherneH.ThermannH.WeberT.: Osteosynthesis of displaced intraarticular fractures of the calcaneus. Results in 123 cases. Clin. Orthop., 290:76–86, 1993
