As the water crisis intensifies around the world, environmental and social shocks such as livelihood loss, conflicts, and tragic depletion of water resources arise. While agribusiness development policies aim at improving the economy, it ignores the governance of limited water resources, vulnerable environment, and rural communities. In this study, we investigate socio-economic and environmental effects of hydro-agricultural policies in the Souss basin in Morocco. To this end, climate, land use, and groundwater data as well as field interviews are combined to investigate the problem. The findings indicate that the physical water shortage is worsened by agricultural policies. Furthermore, the ceaseless supply development policy aliments a vicious cycle of supply-demand which depletes resources and spreads vulnerabilities. However, insights from the Souss basin highlight the relevance of local community-based water governance, especially when top-down, technocratic approaches fail.
ABHSM. (2023). Etude d’actualisation du Plan Directeur d’Aménagement Intégré des Ressources en Eau du bassin hydraulique. Agence de bassin hydraulique Souss Massa.
2.
Abou AliA.BouchaouL.Er-RakiS.HssaisouneM.BrouziyneY.EzzaharJ.KhabbaS.ChakirA.LabbaciA.ChehbouniA. (2023). Assessment of crop evapotranspiration and deep percolation in a commercial irrigated citrus orchard under semi-arid climate: Combined eddy-covariance measurement and soil water balance-based approach. Agricultural Water Management, 275, Article 107997. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGWAT.2022.107997
3.
Abun-NasrJ. M. (1987). A history of the maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge University Press.
4.
AglagalC.El HassaneE. L.HssaisouneM.OuhajouL.BouchaouL. (2024). Morocco in the era of desalination: Towards a major change in water policy: Morocco in the era of desalination. Frontiers in Science and Engineering, International Journal, 13(1), 69–78.
AkesbiN. (2011). La nouvelle stratégie agricole du Maroc annonce-t-elle l’insécurité alimentaire du pays. Confluences Méditerranée, 78(3), 93–105. https://doi.org/10.3917/come.078.0093
7.
AraralE. (2009). What explains collective action in the commons? Theory and evidence from the Philippines. World Development, 37(3), 687–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.08.002
8.
ArkocO. (2022). Modeling of spatiotemporal variations of groundwater levels using different interpolation methods with the aid of GIS, case study from Ergene Basin, Turkey. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 8(1), 967–976. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-021-01083-x
9.
AttarO.LeoneM.De GirolamoA. M.BouchaouL.BrouziyneY.El KhalkiE. M.BerrouchH.TaiaS.HssaisouneM.Ait BrahimY. (2025). Modelling water scarcity and water footprint of agricultural crops: A case from a semi-arid region in Morocco. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 59, Article 102455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2025.102455
10.
BakkerK. (2007). The “Commons” Versus the “Commodity”: Alter-globalization, anti-privatization and the human right to water in the global south. Antipode, 39(3), 430–455. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2007.00534.x
11.
BalataE. E.PintoH.Moreira da SilvaM. (2022). Latent dimensions between water use and socio-economic development: A global exploratory statistical analysis. Regional Sustainability, 3(3), 269–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsus.2022.09.004
12.
BaldassarreG. D.SivapalanM.RuscaM.CudennecC.GarciaM.KreibichH.KonarM.MondinoE.MårdJ.PandeS.SandersonM. R.TianF.ViglioneA.WeiJ.WeiY.YuD. J.SrinivasanV.BlöschlG. (2019). Sociohydrology: Scientific challenges in addressing the sustainable development goals. Water Resources Research, 55(8), 6327–6355. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018WR023901
13.
BenabderrazikK.KopainskyB.TaziL.JoerinJ.SixJ. (2021). Agricultural intensification can no longer ignore water conservation–A systemic modelling approach to the case of tomato producers in Morocco. Agricultural Water Management, 256, Article 107082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.107082
BergS. V. (2007). Conflict resolution: Benchmarking water utility performance. Public Administration and Development, 27(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.437
16.
BossenbroekL. (2016). Behind the veil of agricultural modernization: gendered dynamics of rural change in the Saïss, Morocco. [internal PhD, WU, Wageningen University]. Wageningen University. https://doi.org/10.18174/388046
17.
BouchaouL.Choukr-AllahR.HirichA.EnnasrM. S.MalkiM.AbahousH.BouaakazB.NghiraA. (2017). Climate change and water valuation in Souss-Massa region: Management and adaptive measures. European Water, 60, 203–209.
18.
BoujnikhM.HumbertA. (2010). L’eau dans le bassin du Souss: Concurrences et désorganisation des systèmes paysans. Norois, 214, 113–126. https://doi.org/10.4000/norois.3178
BziouiM. (2011). Challenges and strategies for managing water resources in Morocco comparative experiences around the Mediterranean Sea. In Water security in the mediterranean region: An international evaluation of management, control, and governance approaches (pp. 291–300). Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1623-0_20
Choukr-AllahR.NghiraA.HirichA.BouchaouL. (2017). Water resources master plan for sustainable development of the Souss-Massa river basin. In Choukr-AllahR.RagabR.BouchaouL.BarcelóD. (Eds.), The Souss-Massa river basin (pp. 1–26). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2016_67
ClosasA.VillholthK. G. (2016). Aquifer contracts: A means to solving groundwater over-exploitation in Morocco?International Water Management Institute (IWMI). https://doi.org/10.5337/2016.211
Del VecchioK. (2019). Le « contrat de nappe » du Saïss au Maroc, figure d’un État aménageur libéral. In BlanchonD.CasciarriB. (Eds.), L’accès à l’eau en Afrique: Vulnérabilités, exclusions, résiliences et nouvelles solidarités (pp. 119–136). Presses universitaires de Paris Nanterre.
27.
Del VecchioK.BaroneS. (2018). Has Morocco’s groundwater policy changed? Lessons from the institutional approach. Water Alternatives, 11(3), 638–662.
28.
Del VecchioK.MayauxP.-L. (2017). Gouverner les eaux souterraines au Maroc. L’État en aménageur libéral. Gouvernement et action publique, 6(1), 107–130. https://doi.org/10.3917/gap.171.0107
29.
DestremauB.WilsonF.KanjiN.BraathenE. (2001). Poverty, discourse and state power: A case study of Morocco. Poverty Reduction: What Role for the State in Today’s Globalized Economy, 31(6), 129–163.
30.
DolanF.LamontagneJ.LinkR.HejaziM.ReedP.EdmondsJ. (2021). Evaluating the economic impact of water scarcity in a changing world. Nature Communications, 12(1), 1915. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22194-0
ElderA. D. (2022). The green Morocco plan in boudnib: Examining effects on rural livelihoods. The Journal of Environment & Development, 31(3), 275–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/10704965221098149
33.
El HafyaniM.SaddikA.HssaisouneM.LabbaciA.TairiA.AbdelfadelF.BouchaouL. (2025). Weeds detection in a citrus orchard using multispectral UAV data and machine learning algorithms: A case study from Souss-Massa basin, Morocco. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, 38, Article 101553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2025.101553
ElkoukA.PokhrelY.SatohY.BouchaouL. (2022). Implications of changes in climate and human development on 21st-century global drought risk. Journal of Environmental Management, 317, Article 115378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115378
36.
EllisF. (2000). Rural livelihoods and diversity in developing countries. Oxford University Press.
37.
EnforsE. (2013). Social–ecological traps and transformations in dryland agro-ecosystems: Using water system innovations to change the trajectory of development. Global Environmental Change, 23(1), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.10.007
38.
Er RayhanyH.KadiriZ.Ait MousF.BossenbroekL. (2022). The oasis extensions: Typology and heterogeneity of profiles in Toudgha. New Medit, 21(05). https://doi.org/10.30682/nm2205m
39.
EvaristoJ.JameelY.TortajadaC.WangR. Y.HorneJ.NeukrugH.DavidC. P.FasnachtA. M.ZieglerA. D.BiswasA. (2023). Water woes: The institutional challenges in achieving SDG 6. Sustainable Earth Reviews, 6(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42055-023-00067-2
40.
Ez-zaouyY.BouchaouL.HssaisouneM.AangriA.BusicoG.DanniS. O.BrahimY. A.NehmadouM.SaadA. (2025). Groundwater vulnerability and risk assessment of seawater intrusion for the development of a strategy plan towards sustainability: Case of the Souss-Massa coastal area, Morocco. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 57, Article 102128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.102128
41.
Ez-ZaouyY.BouchaouL.SchreiberH.MontcoudiolN.KalberkampU.DanniS. O.TouabA.AbourrigF.HssaisouneM. (2023). Combined geophysical methods to investigate seawater intrusion in the Souss-Massa coastal area, Morocco. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 21, Article 100915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2023.100915
42.
FaizF. (2022). Features of water culture in Southern Morocco through the dictionary of water terms in Morocco 1921. Journal of Amazigh Studies, 2022(2), 55–70.
43.
FAO. (2021). The state of the World’s land and water resources for food and agriculture – systems at breaking points (SOLAW 2021). https://doi.org/10.4060/cb7654en
44.
FaysseN. (2015). The rationale of the green Morocco plan: Missing links between goals and implementation. The Journal of North African Studies, 20(4), 622–634. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629387.2015.1053112
45.
FiorilloV.Lo ZoppoM.SaputoA. (2023). Megatrends affecting agribusiness: From challenges to opportunities. In Agriculture as an alternative investment: The status quo and future perspectives (pp. 1–44). Springer.
García-ÁlvarezD.Camacho OlmedoM. T.MasJ.-F.PaegelowM. (2022). Land use cover mapping, modelling and validation. A background. In García-ÁlvarezD.Camacho OlmedoM. T.PaegelowM.MasJ. F. (Eds.), Land use cover datasets and validation tools: Validation practices with QGIS (pp. 21–33). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-90998-7_2
48.
GouahiS.HssaisouneM.QurtobiM.NehmadouM.BouaakkazB.BouchaouL. (2022). Assessment of managed aquifer recharge within the Souss river basin. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts, 2022, H55J–0697.
49.
GOXEA. (2006). Gouvernance territoriale et développement durable: implications théoriques et usages rhétoriques » dans Romain Pasquier. In Vincent Simoulin etJ. W. (Ed.), La gouvernance territoriale. Pratiques, discours et théories (pp. 151–170). LGDJ (coll. « Droit et société »).
50.
HammoudiA. (1997). Master and disciple: The cultural foundations of Moroccan authoritarianism. University of Chicago Press.
HeinrichsD. H.RojasR. (2022). Cultural values in water management and governance: Where do we stand?Water, 14(5), 803. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14050803
53.
Héritier-SalamaV. (2019). Canaux anciens et puits récents: Usages de l’eau d’irrigation, identité et territoire dans le Haouz (Maroc). Développement durable et territoires. Économie, géographie, politique, droit, sociologie, 10, https://doi.org/10.4000/developpementdurable.15758
HoudretA. (2012). The water connection: Irrigation, water grabbing and politics in southern Morocco. Water Alternatives, 5(2), 284–303.
56.
HoudretA.HeinzR. (2023). Groundwater governance through institutional bricolage? Participation in Morocco’s Chtouka aquifer contract. In Groundwater. Routledge.
57.
HssaisouneM.BouchaouL.SifeddineA.BouimetarhanI.ChehbouniA. (2020). Moroccan groundwater resources and evolution with global climate changes. Geosciences, 10(2), 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/GEOSCIENCES10020081
58.
IglesiasA.GarroteL.FloresF.MoneoM. (2007). Challenges to manage the risk of water scarcity and climate change in the Mediterranean. Water Resources Management, 21(5), 775–788. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-006-9111-6
59.
IngraoC.StrippoliR.LagioiaG.HuisinghD. (2023). Water scarcity in agriculture: An overview of causes, impacts and approaches for reducing the risks. Heliyon.
60.
IRES. (2021). L’APPROCHE NEXUS “AGRICULTURE-EAU-ENERGIE-ECOSYSTEMES” DANS LA GESTION DE L’EAU AU NIVEAU D’UN BASSIN VERSANT: CAS DU BASSIN HYDROGRAPHIQUE SOUSS MASSA.
JuryW. A.VauxH. J. (2007). The emerging global water crisis: Managing scarcity and conflict between water users. In Advances in agronomy (95, pp. 1–76). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(07)95001-4
63.
KallisG. (2010). Coevolution in water resource development: The vicious cycle of water supply and demand in Athens, Greece. Ecological Economics, 69(4), 796–809. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECOLECON.2008.07.025
64.
Kemp-BenedictE.CookS.AllenS. L.VostiS.LemoalleJ.GiordanoM.WardJ.KaczanD. (2013). Connections between poverty, water and agriculture: Evidence from 10 river basins. In Water, food and poverty in river basins (pp. 363–378). Routledge.
65.
KhellafA.BelahsenS.BelahsenM. (2016). Évaluation DE LA STRATÉGIE AGRICOLE DU MAROC (PLAN MAROC VERT): UNE ANALYSE EN ÉQUILIBRE GÉNÉRAL DYNAMIQUE. Assurances et gestion des risques, 83(3–4), 293. https://doi.org/10.7202/1091510ar
66.
KhrouzD. (1992). La politique agricole du Maroc indépendant. Institut de Recherches et d’études Sur Les Mondes Arabes et Musulmans. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.iremam.2411
67.
Konadu-AgyemangK. (2001). An overview of structural adjustment programs in Africa. In IMF and world bank sponsored structural adjustment programs in Africa. Routledge.
68.
KrauseS.LynchI.AgarwalA.AkinsemoluA.ArheimerB.BuytaertW.FloydR.HoudretA.SaccocciaE.SchneidewindU.TocknerK.YasminT.HannahD. M. (2024). Seven strategies to leverage water for peace and foster sustainable and just water management for all. Nature Water, 2(12), 1134–1138. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-024-00353-z
KyddJ.ThoyerS. (1992). Structural adjustment and Moroccan agriculture: An assessment of the reforms in the sugar and cereal sectors. OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/217714011805
71.
LascoumesP. etLe GalesP. (Eds.), (2005). Gouverner par les instruments (p. 371). Presses de Sciences Po.
LepontU. (2024). Public spending and austerity: The two faces of the French investor state. Competition & Change, 28(3–4), 415–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/10245294231213683
MalkiH. E.DoumouA. (1992). Les dilemmes de l’ajustement. In SantucciJ.-C. (Ed.), Le Maroc actuel: Une modernisation au miroir de la tradition ? (pp. 313–323). Institut de recherches et d’études sur les mondes arabes et musulmans. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.iremam.2433
77.
MansirI.BouchaouL.ChebliB.BrahimY. A.Choukr-AllahR. (2021). A specific indicator approach for the assessment of water resource vulnerability in arid areas: The case of the Souss-Massa region (Morocco). Hydrological Sciences Journal, 66(7), 1151–1168. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2021.1924379
78.
MarthelotP. (1980). Paul Pascon, Le Haouz de Marrakech, Rabat-Tanger, Éditions marocaines et internationales, 1977, 2 vols, 693. Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 35(3–4), 823–825. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0395264900145445
79.
McKeeT. B.DoeskenN. J.KleistJ. (1993). The relationship of drought frequency and duration to time scales. In: Proceedings of the IX conference on applied climatology (pp. 179–184). American Meteorological Society.
80.
MinoiaP. (2012). Mega-irrigation and neoliberalism in postcolonial states: Evolution and crisis in the gharb plain, morocco. Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography, 94, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0467.2012.00414.x
81.
MolleF.ClosasA. (2020). Why is state-centered groundwater governance largely ineffective? A review. WIREs Water, 7(1), Article e1395. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1395
82.
MolleF.MayauxP.-L. (2023). Les angles morts de la politique de l’eau au Maroc. Confluences Méditerranée, 126(3), 165–184. https://doi.org/10.3917/come.126.0166
83.
MolleF.TanoutiO. (2017). Squaring the circle: Agricultural intensification vs. water conservation in Morocco. Agricultural Water Management, 192, 170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2017.07.009
84.
MsandaF.MayadE. H.FurzeJ. N. (2021). Floristic biodiversity, biogeographical significance, and importance of Morocco’s arganeraie biosphere reserve. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 28(45), 64156–64165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11936-0
85.
NjebanH. (2018). Comparison and evaluation of GIS-based spatial interpolation methods for estimation groundwater level in AL-Salman district—southwest Iraq. Journal of Geographic Information System, 10(04), 362–380. https://doi.org/10.4236/jgis.2018.104019
OstromE. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511807763
88.
OthmanM.AyoubS.MohamedS.QarroM.MustaphaN.MohamedC. (2022). Water in Morocco, retrospective at the political, regulatory and institutional levels. Open Journal of Modern Hydrology, 12(02), 11–31. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojmh.2022.122002
Pahl-WostlC. (2015). Water governance in the face of global change. Springer.
91.
PoppH. (1986). L’agriculture irriguée dans la vallée du Souss. Formes et conflits d’utilisation de l’eau. Méditerranée, 59(4), 33–47. https://doi.org/10.3406/medit.1986.2425
92.
QuarouchH.KuperM.AbdellaouiE. H.BouarfaS. (2014). Subterranean waters, a source of dignity as well as a social resource: The case of farmers on the Saïss plain of Morocco. Cahiers Agricultures, 23(3), 158–165. https://doi.org/10.1684/agr.2014.0699
93.
RachikH. (2016). L’esprit du terrain: Études anthropologiques au Maroc. Centre Jacques-Berque.
94.
ReV. (2015). Incorporating the social dimension into hydrogeochemical investigations for rural development: The Bir Al-Nas approach for socio-hydrogeology. Hydrogeology Journal, 23(7), 1293–1304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-015-1284-8
95.
RodellaA.-S.ZaveriE.BertoneF. (2023). The Hidden Wealth of Nations: The Economics of Groundwater in Times of Climate Change. Washington, DC: World Bank.
SantoroA.OngomaV.Ait el KadiM.PirasF.FioreB.BazzurroA.RomanoF.MeskourB.HssaisouneM.LabbaciA.TairiA.ChfadiT.BouchaouL. (2023). Innovation of argan (Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels) products and byproducts for sustainable development of rural communities in Morocco. A systematic literature review. Biodiversity and Conservation, 34(9), 3211–3239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-023-02691-y
98.
SchneggM.BolligM. (2016). Institutions put to the test: Community-based water management in Namibia during a drought. Journal of Arid Environments, 124, 62–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2015.07.009
99.
SeddonD. (1988). Structural adjustment and agriculture: Morocco in the 1980s. University of East Anglia, School of Development Studies.
100.
SGG. (1995). Lois 10-95 sur l’eau promulguée par le dahir n 1-95-154 du 18 rabii I 1416 (16 août 1995).
TaheripourF.TynerW. E.HaqiqiI.SajediniaE. (2020). Water scarcity in Morocco: Analysis of key water challenges. World Bank.
105.
TarnokiC.PuentesK. (2019). Something for everyone: A review of qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. The Qualitative Report, 24(12), 3122–3124. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2019.4294
VafaeiE.Shahabi AhangarkolaeeS.Lucas-BorjaM. E.Shabanali FamiH.ZemaD. A. (2021). A framework to evaluate the factors influencing groundwater management in water user associations: The case study of Tafresh County (Iran). Agricultural Water Management, 255, Article 107013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.107013
113.
VaivioJ. (2012). Interviews–learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. Taylor & Francis.
114.
VecchioK. D.KuperM. (2022). La mise en visibilité des eaux souterraines au Maroc: Un processus historiquement lié aux politiques de développement de l’irrigation. Développement Durable et Territoires, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.4000/developpementdurable.19675
115.
WaalD. DEKhemaniS.BaroneA.BorgomeoE. (2023). The economics of water scarcity in the Middle East and North Africa: Institutional solutions. World Bank Publications.
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and Global Water Partnership (GWP). (2016). Handbook of drought indicators and indices (M. Svoboda and B.A. fuchs). Integrated Drought Management Programme (IDMP), integrated drought management tools and guidelines series 2. Geneva.
ZahourM. (2021). Food security in Morocco: Risk factors and governance. In Emerging challenges to food production and security in Asia, Middle East, and Africa: Climate risks and resource scarcity (pp. 149–170).
