Alcoholuseand abuseis
widespread
among
Native
Americans.
As
aresult, much research has focused on this topic. To date, however, no
comprehensive compilation of the literature exists. This article attempts
to remedy the situation by providing a preliminary, annotated bibliography
on the subject and a brief review of the various methodological and theo
retical approaches reported in the literature. While the authors are in the
process of compiling a comprehensive version, this preliminary bibliog
raphy represents an attempt to make available as soon as possible the
most significant citations.
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References
1.
Adler, Nathan and Daniel Goleman1969 "Gambling and Alcoholism: Symptom Substitution and Functional Equivalents," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol30: 733-736. The dynamics of gambling and alcohol are viewed as functional equivalents in various societies. Alcoholism is postulated as a response to loss of an important cultural mechanism, gambling.
2.
Albaugh, Bernard and P. Anderson1974 "Peyote in the Treatment of Alcoholism among American Indians ," American Journal of Psychiatry131: 1247-1250. Participation in the ceremonies of the Native American Church provide an important component in ethnically oriented alcoholism treatment for Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho patients. The peyote religion offers specific advantages to Native Americans which other forms of treatment cannot. Additional aspects of the Cheyenne-Arapaho treatment program are also reported.
3.
Anonymous1911 "Keeping the Indian Sober," Harper's Weekly55: 23. A description of the work of the Special Officers of the Indian Service in preventing the sale of intoxicants to Indians.
4.
1956 "The Liquor Problem among Indians of the Southwest," Indian Affairs18: 3-4. Drinking is reported to be a problem in many tribal groups, and home and tribal authority are breaking down as contempt for tradition grows. Reservation prohibition contributes to surreptitious drinking. Factionalism between religious groups contributes to problem drinking. Control over liquor distribution will continue to be a problem. Early educational programs are called for.
5.
1974 "Alcoholism Under Attack," Akwesasne Notes 6(1): 29. A review of some of the current programs directed toward controlling Indian alcohol abuse, and some criticisms of programs originating in the dominant culture. That solutions lie in the native communities is the general conclusion.
6.
Bahr, Howard M., Bruce A. Chadwick, and Robert C. Day1972Native Americans Today: Sociological Perspectives, New York, Harper and Row. A reader on contemporary Indian problems; alcoholism is the subject of two articles and is mentioned in connection with other sociocultural problems in a number of other articles.
7.
Baker, James1959 "Indians, Alcohol and Homicide," Journal of Social Therapy5: 270-275. Represents a review of common characteristics exhibited in a group of 36 Native Americans incarcerated in the federal penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas, all of whom committed homicide while acutely intoxicated.
8.
Bales, Robert F.1946 "Cultural Differences in Rates of Alcoholism," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol6: 480-499. Discusses three general factors which the author believes give insight into cultural differences in the rates of alcoholism, and cites four attitudes which a culture may hold and which contribute to drinking behavior. Various Native American groups are cited as examples.
9.
Beede, Laurence I.1968 "Teen-age Indian Drinking in Seattle and King County," MA thesis, University of Washington. 83 pp. A statistical survey of youths arrested in Seattle for delinquent behavior and drinking charges. Whites, Blacks, and Native Americans are examined. Drinking behavior, especially among Native Americans, is correlated with socioeconomic status. Social position is believed to have a greater influence on drinking behavior than ethnic identity.
10.
Bennion, Lynn and Ting-Kai Li1976 "Alcohol Metabolism in American Indians and Whites," New England Journal of Medicine294(1): 9-13. An investigation of racial differences in alcohol tolerance using 30 healthy Indian and White volunteers. While it was found that heavy drinkers in both Indians and Whites metabolize alcohol more rapidly, there were no differences between the metabolic rates of these groups.
11.
Berreman, Gerald D.1956 "Drinking Patterns of the Aleuts," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol17: 503-514. Indicates that early Aleut exposure to alcohol came from Russian fur traders and it is likely that drinking behavior is patterned after white models. The author supports the theory that the drinking response is due to levels of stress within the society.
12.
Bittker, Thomas E.1973 "Dilemmas of Mental Health Service Delivery to Off-Reservation Indians," Anthropological Quarterly46: 172-182. The off-reservation Native American has been conspicuously ignored by contemporary health service delivery systems. This is particularly apparent in the paucity of programs and treatment facilities available to those individuals with alcohol abuse problems. The author explores some of the reasons for this situation and makes suggestions for dealing with the mental health problems of off-reservation Native Americans.
13.
Blevans, Stephen A.1967 "A Critical Review of the Anthropological Literature on Drinking, Drunkenness, and Alcoholism," MA thesis, University of Washington. 119 pp. A review of anthropological literature which roughly categorizes the studies and identifies major themes and theories. Various authors' approaches are compared and contrasted.
14.
Boatman, John F.1968 "Drinking among Indian Teenagers," MS thesis , University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. Attempts to determine the relationship between drinking levels, anomie, and status deprivation among Native American adolescents. Concludes that there exists a positive relationship between anomie and drinking levels; however, no such relationship exists between status deprivation and drinking levels.
15.
Boyer, L. Bruce1964 "Psychological Problems of a Group of Apaches: Alcoholic Hallucinosis and Latent Homosexuality among Typical men," in Warner Muensterberger and Sidney Axelrad, eds., The Psychoanalytic Study of Society , New York, International Universities Press:203-277. A psychoanalytic investigation into Apache sociocultural and psychological orientation, with emphasis on drinking behavior and latent homosexual tendencies.
16.
Brod, Thomas M.1975 "Alcoholism as a Mental Health Problem of Native Americans: a Review of the Literature," Archives of General Psychiatry32: 1385-1391. The labels "alcoholism" and "alcoholic" are used indiscriminately to the detriment of Native Americans. The author reviews the following points: (1) severity of Indian drinking, (2) cultural predisposition to drinking, (3) individual motivation for drinking, and (4) sociocultural stresses. Native American alcohol abuse represents a behavior which is the product of historic and cultural factors screened through an individual's personal psychology.
17.
Carpenter, Edmund S.1959 "Alcohol in the Iroquois Dream Quest," American Journal of Psychiatry116(8): 148-151. The role of alcohol from the 17th century to the present is described. The transition of alcohol from a substance which assisted in dream seeking to a substance which helped release tension and aggression, and finally to a substance defined as evil by the prophet Handsome Lake is discussed.
18.
Cockerham, William C.1975 "Drinking Attitudes and Practices among Wind River Reservation Indian Youth," Journal of Studies on Alcohol36: 321-326. Represents a study of drinking attitudes expressed by 7th and 8th grade Indian students, mostly Shoshone and Arapaho, as elicited by a survey questionnaire administered to 144 students. There were some differences between male and female points of view; however, despite the possibility of getting into trouble for illegal drinking, the adolescents expressed very positive attitudes towards alcohol consumption.
19.
Clarke, Frank1975a "Thoughts on Indian Alcoholism," Association of American Indian Physicians Newsletter 3(1): 3, part 1. Discusses the effects of alcohol, the definition of alcoholism, the motivation for drinking, and whether or not Native Americans are more prone to alcoholism than other groups.
20.
1975b "Thoughts on Indian Alcoholism," Association of American Indian Physicians Newsletter3(2): 3, part 2. The author considers whether or not there is anything physiologically different about Native Americans; whether Native Americans are psychologically prone to pathological drinking; and various treatment methods.
21.
Curley, Richard T.1967 "Drinking Patterns of the Mescalero Apache," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol28: 116-131. A lack of responsibility among men and women, dependency on the government for employment, and lack of satisfactory role models for Apache youth contribute to destructive drinking behavior. The author describes the Apache drinking pattern as "blitz drinking," or drinking with the object of getting drunk as rapidly as possible. However, drinking is an important group activity and provides an opportunity for sociability in a culture where there is little else to do.
22.
Dailey, R.C.1968 "The Role of Alcohol among North American Indian Tribes as Reported in the Jesuit Relations," Anthropologica10: 45-57. An analysis of the Jesuit Relations reveals European attitudes toward Native American drinking behavior. The author also examines Iroquoian culture for parallel behaviors that were present prior to the introduction of alcohol in order to illustrate that while alcohol was new, many of the actions observed relative to its consumption were already extant in the Iroquoian culture.
23.
Dann, Jeffrey L.1967 "A Study of an Indian Tavern on Skid Road," MA thesis, University of Washington. 142 pp. Represents a preliminary tavern ethnography which examines bar behavior and the skid road environment. The urban tavern is seen as a place in which newly arrived Indians can get information about the city, thus facilitating the process of urbanization.
24.
Devereux, George1948 "The Function of Alcohol in Mohave Society," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol9: 207-251. The historical, sociocultural and unconscious aspects of Mohave alcoholism are described and discussed. It was found that drinking has been integrated with Mohave culture and psychology. The absence of a high level of anxiety and the preservation of certain basic cultural attitudes serve to explain why the intoxicated Mohave is not aggressively antisocial, and why Mohave society has withstood the ravages of alcoholism observed in other tribes.
25.
1961 "Mohave Ethnopsychiatry and Suicide: the Psychiatric Knowledge and the Psychic Disturbances of an Indian Tribe," Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin175, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office. Provides an in-depth analysis of Mohave behavior interpreted psychologically and psychiatrically. The use of alcohol as related to other observed disturbances is noted and a special discussion on the functions of alcohol is appended. The issue is raised as to whether or not all Mohave heavy drinking is truly alcoholic, or merely provides an excuse for other behaviors.
26.
Dodson, John W.1972 "Socioeconomic Aspects of Drinking Patterns on the Wind River Reservation," MA thesis, University of Utah. An investigation of certain sociocultural variables on the Wind River Reservation, Wyoming, is undertaken in an effort to explain drinking patterns among the Shoshone and Arapaho residents. Drinking patterns are divided into two types, public drinking and controlled drinking. The differential occurrence of these patterns is explained by the economic conditions extant on the reservation.
27.
Donnelly, Joseph P.1940 "The Liquor Traffic among the Aborigines of the New Northwest, 1800-1860" Ph.D. dissertation, St. LouisUniversity. Explores the introduction of alcoholic beverages among Native Americans and describes the trade in liquor between Anglos and Native Americans which resulted.
28.
Dozier, Edward P.1966 "Problem Drinking among American Indians: the Role of Sociocultural Deprivation," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol27: 72-87. Eliminating the "racial tendency to drunkenness" argument, the author examines the unique historical, social, and cultural circumstances contributing to excessive use of alcohol and criminality rates among Native Americans. The function of alcohol in Native American communities is discussed, and some solutions to the problem of alcohol abuse are examined.
29.
Driver, Harold E.1955 "Alcoholic Beverages in Native North America," Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science64: 50-51. Only one-fourth of all native peoples manufactured and drank alcoholic beverages, and these were almost exclusively confined to the Southwest, Mexico, and Central America. Distillation was a European import which spread rapidly after its introduction.
30.
Durgin, Edward C.1975 "Brewing and Boozing: a Study of Drinking Patterns among the Hare Indians," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oregon . 161 pp. Provides an account of the drinking behavior of the Hare Indians of Fort Good Hope, Northwest Territories, Canada. Examines the sociocultural context of drinking, the patterns of drinking in the community, and the methods of social control and governmental controls exercised over drinking behavior. It is theorized that drinking is encouraged by a means-goal disjunction due to white domination and high unemployment coupled with rapid culture change.
31.
DuToit, Brian M.1964 "Substitution: a Process in Culture Change," Human Organization23: 16-23. Represents a study of a Klamath community in which excessive drinking was defined as deviant; however, beginning in the 1940s the rate of alcohol consumption increased so that what was once deviant behavior became the modal behavior. Drunkenness became culturally accepted, and drinking parties became a replacement for lost social institutions.
32.
Dyer, Dorothy T.1969 "Human Problem in an Indian Culture," Family Coordinator18: 322-325. A report on a course in Family and Human Development which was taught to tribal employees, Headstart teachers, and other agency personnel on the Standing Rock Sioux Reservation. Alcohol problems were among the key reservation problems identified and discussed.
33.
Fahy, Agnes and Carl Muschenheim1965 "Third National Conference on American Indian Health," Journal of the American Medical Association194: 1093-1096. A debate was conducted as to whether alcoholism was a causative of mental illness or symptomatic of other conditions. Some conferees indicated that alcohol was a safety valve which prevented more serious psychiatric problems.
34.
Fairbanks, Robert A.1973 "The Cheyenne-Arapaho and Alcoholism: Does the Tribe have a Legal Right to a Medical Remedy?" American Indian Law Review1: 55-77. Briefly reviews the history of the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes and the factors which have created a very high rate of alcohol abuse among the two groups. Examines federal treaties, statutes, and moral obligations of the dominant society to discover prerogatives for designing and funding a comprehensive alcoholism program which addresses the basic etiologies of the problem. Sees the program as a joint responsibility of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Indian Health Service.
35.
Fenna, D., L. Mix, O. Schaefer, and J.A.L. Gilbert1971 "Ethanol Metabolism in Various Racial Groups," Canadian Medical Association Journal105: 472-475. The authors attempt to check out casual reports from medical and law enforcement observers-which had been unverified—that Eskimos and Indians took longer to sober up after a drinking episode than did whites. This apparent difference was investigated by administering ethanol to selected subjects and determining their blood alcohol concentrations by use of a Breathalyser. Concentrations fell significantly faster in whites. Neither previous experience with alcohol nor general diet appeared to account for the difference, leaving the possibility of genetic factors as the cause. The total sample size was 64, so results should be interpreted with caution.
36.
Ferguson, Frances N.1968 "Navajo Drinking: Some Tentative Hypotheses," Human Organization27: 159-167. Provides a description of an 18 month treatment program in Gallup, New Mexico, which centers around the use of antebuse and group and individual therapy. The author postulates two types of excessive drinkers. Successful treatment tended to be with older, less acculturated individuals who did not have unrealistic aspirations toward the dominant culture. Level of acculturation is postulated to be directly related to success or failure in the treatment program.
37.
1970 "A Treatment Program for Navajo Alcoholics: Results after Four Years," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol31: 898-919. A description of an experimental, long term treatment program for Navajo Indians who had been frequently arrested and jailed for drunkenness. Program components included disulfiram therapy, counseling (in Navajo and English), education, employment, and welfare assistance. Characteristics of those individuals having the greatest success in the program included: (1) a high arrest rate, (2) older, (3) less education, and (4) less facility with English.
38.
1972 "A Stake in Society: its Relevance to Response by Navajo Alcoholics in a Treatment Program," Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. 181 pp. Analyzes 110 Navajo male alcoholics in a demonstration project in Gallup, New Mexico, and attempts to test the hypothesis developed by John and Irma Honigman that success in treatment was related to having a stake in society. The study concludes that older Navajo men with a stake in traditional Navajo society did succeed in an alcohol treatment program; however, Navajos with a stake in contemporary western society did not do well in treatment. Various other variables are also examined.
39.
1976 "Stake Theory as an Explanatory Device in Navajo Alcoholism Treatment Response," Human Organization35: 65-78. Examines stake theory as it applies to 110 Navajo males undergoing treatment for alcoholism and/or problem drinking. Having a stake in society was divided into four categories: none, traditional, modern, and both. The success or failure of patients in each of the four operationally defined categories is analyzed. Most successful in treatment programs were Navajos with a stake in both traditional and modem society.
40.
Field, P.B.1962 "A New Cross Cultural Study of Drunkenness," in D. J. Pittman and C. R. Snyder , eds., Society, Culture and Drinking Patterns, New York, John Wiley and Sons: 48-74. The author postulates that the degree of looseness in social organization affects the level of drunkenness. Therefore, the high rate of insobriety found in hunting-and-gathering societies stems not from Horton's postulated "subsistence anxiety," but from the informal nature of such cultures.
41.
Gabe, Ruth C., Graham H. Phelps, and James A. Ruck1968 "An Exploratory Study of the Incidence of Alcohol-Related Arrests among American Indians of Onondaga County, New York," MSW thesis, Syracuse University. 85 pp. This study details the extent and nature of alcohol-related arrests among Native Americans in Onondaga County, New York. It was found that Native Americans were arrested at a rate 20 times more than that of whites and 1½ times as often as Blacks. Alcohol was related to 73% of all Native American arrests, compared to 44% for whites and 35% for Blacks.
42.
Graves, Theodore1967 "Acculturation, Access, and Alcoholism in a Tri-ethnic Community," American Anthropologist69: 306-321. Examines the differences in alcohol use and abuse among Native Americans, Chicanos, and Anglos relative to levels of acculturation and the degree of access to the economic system.
43.
1970 "The Personal Adjustment of Navajo Migrants to Denver, Colorado," American Anthropologist72: 35-54. Native American drinking is explained in terms of structural and psychological variables which also exist in non-Indian populations. The author concludes that the high rate of Native American drinking results from the fact that Native Americans, relative to other groups, are less prepared for urban living and the accompanying stresses.
44.
1971 "Drinking and Drunkenness among Urban Indians," in Jack Waddell and O. Michael Watson, eds., The American Indian in Urban Society, Boston, Little, Brown:274-311. Analysis of the structure and function of drinking among Navajo urban migrants reveals that aside from a socialization factor, the drinking also allows for release of hostility and relief from stress. Concludes that the Native Americans with the highest risk of arrest are the ones least prepared for urban living.
45.
Hamer, John H.1965 "Acculturation Stress and the Functions of Alcohol among the Forest Potawatomi," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol26: 285-302. Historical as well as contemporary drinking behavior in the Potawatomi community of Whitehorse is discussed. Functional aspects of drinking includes : (1) providing individuals with a means of coping with an unpredictable universe, as well as an escape from anxiety, (2) permitting individuals to temporarily assume desirable status positions in a changing social structure, (3) serving as a means of categorizing groups in an acculturation situation, and (4) providing a solvent for tensions.
46.
1969 "Guardian Spirits: Alcohol, and Cultural Defense Mechanisms ," Anthropologica11: 215-241. The Forest Potawatomi guardian spirit quest and social drinking are defined as institutional outlets for the sublimation of dependency as well as providing a situationally acceptable means for releasing aggression.
47.
Hauser, S. Frederick1942 "A Study of Alcoholism in an American Indian Tribe," MA thesis, Columbia University. 104 pp. Attempts to provide an ethnographic analysis of alcohol use among the Pomo Indians of Northern California.
48.
Heath, Dwight1964 "Prohibition and Post-Repeal Drinking Patterns among the Navajo," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol25: 119-135. Drinking patterns among the Navajo before and after prohibition (1953 for Native Americans) are reviewed in terms of who, what, where, how, and why. There has been little evidence of change since 1941 despite the repeal of federal and state prohibition laws. The nature of the drinking groups remains unchanged.
49.
1974 "A Critical Review of Ethnographic Studies of Alcohol Use," in R. J. Gibbins, et al., eds., Research Advances in Alcohol and Drug Problems, New York , John Wiley and Sons:1-92. Provides a review of anthropological literature and perspectives on drinking behavior, the history and prehistory of alcohol use, and alcohol among ethnic groups in Western society. Includes numerous references to literature on Native American alcohol use.
50.
1976 "Anthropological Perspectives on Alcohol: An Historical Review ," in Michael Everett, Jack Waddell, and Dwight B. Heath, eds., Cross-Cultural Approaches to the Study of Alcohol: an Interdisciplinary Perspective, The Hague, Mouton: 41-101.
51.
Hippler, Arthur E.1974 "An Alaskan Athabascan Technique for Overcoming Alcohol Abuse," Arctic27: 53-67. Indicates that the methodology for overcoming alcohol abuse among Native Americans is dependent upon the existing means of social control in each society. The Athabascans of interior Alaska "... tend to overcome alcohol abuse by adhering to fundamentalist Christianity which reflects their need for an external superego that in the past took the form of a nearly absolute chieftainship."
52.
Hoffman, Helmut and Douglas N. Jackson1973 "Comparison of Measured Psychopathology in Indian and Non-Indian Alcoholics," Psychological Reports33: 793-794. The Differential Personality Inventory was administered to 24 Chippewa and 1 Sioux hospitalized for the treatment of alcoholism. The comparison population was 75 whites matched for age, sex, and education. Indians scored significantly higher than whites on 7 of 27 clinical scales; however, there were no significant differences on scales reflecting character disorders. Results are attributed to socioeconomic deprivation. It is recommended that separate norms be developed on standardized measures of psychopathology for specific ethnic groups.
53.
Hoffman, Helmut and Avis A. Noem1975 "Alcoholism and Abstinence among Relatives of American Indian Alcoholics," Journal of Studies on Alcohol36: 165. A brief report of a study conducted among patients of an alcoholism treatment facility in Minnesota. Alcoholism was found to be more prevalent in the families of alcoholics than non-alcoholics, and among Indians than non-Indians. The high incidence of alcoholism in the Indian population was hypothesized as being related to (1) social frustration and poor socioeconomic conditions on the reservations, (2) stress in early life caused by absence of natural parents, and (3) exposure to heavy drinking during childhood.
54.
Honigmann, John J.1971 "Alcohol in its Cultural Context," in M. Chafetz, ed., Proceedings : First Annual Alcoholism Conference of NIAAA, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office: 252-257. Provides a review of anthropological theories regarding heavy Indian drinking, and suggests that research also needs to focus on non-drinkers in the same population, as well as the culture as a whole for antecedents to drinking behavior. The need for investigation into the symbolism of drinking rather than gross observation of drinking behavior is also indicated.
55.
Honigmann, John J. and Irma Honigmann1945 "Drinking in an Indian-white Community," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol5: 575-619. Represents a comparative study of Indian and white drinking in the Canadian wilderness. Describes the preparation of brews, drinking styles, and drunken behavior. Horton's (1943) theories are applied and the authors find that the characteristic drinking behavior of Indians and whites supports Horton's anxiety theorems.
56.
1965 "How the Baffin Island Eskimo Have Learned to Use Alcohol ," Social Forces44: 73-83. Eskimo in Frobisher Bay became legally entitled to consume alcoholic beverages in 1960; initially this resulted in many arrests for drunkenness. To control drinking a law was passed in 1962 which limited the sale of alcohol. Public drunkenness has since declined, and older Eskimo have begun to learn a drinking pattern resembling that of their Canadian neighbors.
57.
Horton, Donald D.1943 "The Functions of Alcohol in Primitive Societies: a Cross-Cultural Study," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol4: 199-320. The major thesis of this classic study is that anxiety lies at the root of primitive drinking behavior. Alcohol is viewed as an agent of social cohesion. Contrasted with anxiety is counteranxiety, which may inhibit drunken behavior and stems from the society's attitudes toward liquor; the stricter the sanctions and attitudes, the more counteranxiety. Based on this theory Horton rates 56 primitive societies as to their level of "drunkenness."
58.
Howard-Craft, A.1975 "The Native American Male Alcoholic," MPH thesis, University of California, Berkeley. 14 pp. A review of some of the factors which make successful relocation to urban areas difficult for Native American males. Suggests some reasons why Alcoholics Anonymous groups are not always suitable as a therapeutic regimen for Native Americans. Two case histories are presented and various problems are highlighted.
59.
Hurt, Wesley R. and R.M. Brown1965 "Social Drinking Patterns of the Yankton Sioux," Human Organization24: 222-230. The authors postulate a causal relationship between sociocultural organization and drinking patterns; they review the history and culture of the Yankton Sioux in order to demonstrate their hypothesis.
60.
Hussey, Hugh H.1976 "Editorial: Indian's Tolerance to Ethanol," Journal of the American Medical Association235: 1596-1597. After a short historical overview of Indian experience with alcoholic beverages and an examination of three studies of physiologic response to ethanol ingestion by Indians and non-Indians, it is suggested that the Indians' lack of cultural exposure to and experience with alcoholic beverages accounts for their inability to handle strong (i.e. distilled) beverages.
61.
Kemnitzer, Luis S.1972 "The Structure of Country Drinking Parties on the Pine Ridge Reservation, South Dakota," Plains Anthropologist17: 134-142. Provides a brief description of contemporary life on the Pine Ridge Reservation. Recounts the introduction of alcohol to the Sioux. Analyzes country drinking parties and attempts to relate the parties to other aspects of reservation culture. Suggests that drinking parties may serve as a means of conflict resolution and are, therefore, a "... positive contribution to Oglalla social and cultural life...."
62.
Kline, James A. and Arthur C. Roberts1973 "A Residential. Alcoholism Treatment Program for American Indians," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol34: 860-868. A description of the Mendocino State Hospital (California) Indian Alcoholism Program, its strengths and some of the barriers and problems encountered in its implementation.
63.
Krause, Marilyn L.1969 "A Study of Drinking on a Plateau Indian Reservation," MA thesis, University of Washington. 138 pp. An ethnology of "normal" drinking by members of the Yakima tribe. Case study material helps to define patterns of drinking which are contrasted to the usual assumptions of social disorganization and pathology. The public drinking which leads observers to label Indian drinking as deviant in fact reflects a continuation of traditional institutions, the drinking providing an excuse to engage in intense socialization.
64.
Kunitz, Stephen J.1970 "Navajo Drinking Patterns," Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University. 329 pp. A consideration of the Navajo style of drinking as a "normal" activity for most young men; Navajo drinking data (medical, legal, and social) is contrasted with Hopi and White Mountain Apache data to ascertain differences in cultural influences on drinking behavior. Levels of acculturation, social integration, and past histories are contrasted in a discussion of differences in drinking styles. Various methodologies for collecting data are discussed in terms of strengths and weaknesses.
65.
Kunitz, Stephen J. and J.E. Levy1974 "Changing Ideas of Alcohol Use among Navajo Indians," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol35: 243-259. There appears to be a growing acceptance of the idea that heavy drinking is maladaptive, deviant behavior and a sign of disease in the individual Navajo drinker. The history of Navajo drinking, and the role of the "style of drinking" are discussed as a background to this new label of the heavy drinker as "sick." The influence of paraprofessionals in changing the definitions of deviant behavior is also examined.
66.
Kunitz, Stephen J., J.E. Levy, and M.W. Everett1969 "Alcoholic Cirrhosis among the Navaho," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol30: 672-685. A report on an attempt to assess the prevalence of drinking or the extent of alcoholism in contemporary Navajo populations from a review of medical diagnoses of cirrhosis. An increase in cirrhosis was observed between the more isolated, traditional areas of the reservation and those areas of the reservation adjacent to liquor supplies, such as Gallup and Shiprock. However, the Navajo were not found to have a greater prevalence of cirrhosis than other populations, and in fact had lower mortality rates from cirrhosis than the nation as a whole.
67.
Kunitz, Stephen J., J.E. Levy, and C.L. Odoroff1971 "The Epidemiology of Alcoholic Cirrhosis in Two Southwestern Indian Tribes," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol32: 706-720. Liver cirrhosis death rates among the Hopi are over four times higher than the national average; however, among Navajos the age-adjusted rate is slightly less than in the general U.S. population. Contrasting drinking patterns rather than acculturation type stresses are suggested as a possible explanation for the differential cirrhosis rates.
68.
Kuttner, Robert E. and A.B. Lorincz1967 "Alcoholism and Addiction in Urbanized Sioux Indians," Mental Hygiene51: 530-542. A study in Omaha of various Indian groups, all members of the Siouan language family (Omaha, Ponca, Winnebago, and Sioux [Dakota]). In the manner of skid road cultures the drinking group served to raise money for the purchase of alcohol, and solitary drinking was a rare event. The authors advance the thesis that drinking behavior was due to inadequate family training rather than feelings of group inferiority, acculturative stress, frustration of ambition, or other usually assumed "causes" of Indian drinking behavior.
69.
LaBarre, Weston1938 "Native American Beers," American Anthropologist40: 124-135. A survey of the beers and wines of both North and South America which constituted the undistilled liquor of the New World natives. The various native names for the beverages are given, and there is a discussion of the method of preparation and use of fermented beverages within various cultures.
70.
1941 "A Cultist Drug-Addiction in an Indian Alcoholic," Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic5: 40-46. Reports on the case history of an alcoholic Osage Indian who became involved with the narcotic peyote which is used in certain religious ceremonies.
71.
Lang, Gretchen M.1974 "Adaptive Strategies of Urban Indian Drinkers," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri- Columbia. 205 pp. Represents an ethnography of alcoholic Chippewa males in Minneapolis. The author attempts to describe adaptive strategies utilized by alcoholic male Chippewas residing in Minneapolis. Both subsistence patterns and social relationships are examined. Concludes that the use of public facilities, work patterns, geographical mobility, and lack of success in alcoholism rehabilitation contributes or forms the adaptive strategy of urban male Chippewas.
72.
Leland, Joy1972 "Alcohol Addiction among American Indians," MA thesis, University of Nevada, Reno. Applies the World Health Organization Jellinek criteria to a number of Native American groups in an effort to determine the presence or absence of alcohol addiction among these groups. Specifically attempts to test the hypothesis that alcohol addiction is rare among Native Americans. No clear cut evidence was found which supported or discredited the hypothesis. In addition, the author asserts that there is little agreement as to what constitutes valid indicators of alcohol addiction. As a result analysis of the differences in the incidence of alcohol addiction among various Indian groups and between Indians and non-Indians must await the development of valid indicators of alcohol addiction.
73.
1975 "Drinking Styles in an Indian Settlement: a Numerical Folk Taxonomy," Ph.D. dissertation, University of California , Irvine. 340 pp. A detailed description of the development of a union folk taxonomy of drinking practices in a Nevada Indian community. Various attitudes and perceptions regarding drinking behavior were elicited. Results indicate hat the stereotype of Indian drinking as a monolithic phenomenon does not exist. Five distinct styles of handling liquor were identified which demonstrated variation by age and sex.
74.
1976Firewater Myths : North American Indian Drinking and Alcohol Addiction, Rutgers University, Center of Alcohol Studies , Monograph 11, New Brunswick, Rutgers University. Represents the published version of Leland's (1974) MA thesis which is annotated above.
75.
Lemert, Edwin M.1954 "Alcoholism and the Northwest Coast Indians," University of California Publications in Culture and Society 2(6): 304-406. Provides observations on the drinking patterns, function of alcohol, and influences of alcohol within Northwest Coast cultures, as well as including some historical information regarding the introduction of alcohol into this area. The author agrees in part with Horton (1943) that drinking is the result of anxiety. Factors militating against drunkenness, such as the Shaker church and winter ceremonies are noted. Drinking now serves to help reintegrate the individual as a part of an intimate group, and thus has positive functions.
76.
1956 "Alcoholism: Theory, Problems, and Challenge: Alcoholism and the Sociocultural Situation," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol17: 306-317. A review of various theories of alcoholism and a discussion of how these theories do or do not apply to selected cultures, including the Northwest Coast Tribes, the Aleuts, and the Klamaths. The author argues that studies of alcoholism must be related to the sociocultural setting in which the drinking is conducted, and that for some societies alcohol consumption may not be a sign of social pathology or disintegrating culture, but a learned social behavior which is rewarded.
77.
1958 "The Use of Alcohol in Three Salish Indian Tribes," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol19: 90-107. A study of drinking behavior among three Canadian Salish tribes in British Columbia. Alcohol consumption historically began with white contact, and some drinking patterns still reflect the influence of this early period. Present-day drinking resembles that of the surrounding white population, but contains differentiating characteristics that are specifically Native American. The functions of alcohol in Native American society differed from the accepted function of alcohol in white society. Among the Salish, alcohol allows for the release of aggression without the imposition of cultural sanctions.
78.
1962 "Alcohol, Values, and Social Control," in David J. Pittman and Charles R. Snyder, eds., Society, Culture and Drinking Patterns , New York, John Wiley:553-571. A consideration of the multi-faceted aspects of drinking behavior and social controls over intoxication and drunkenness. Various Native American populations are cited as examples in which weak social controls could not contain the excesses of Indians once liquor had been introduced. Other Native American groups are mentioned for self-instituted controls and functional equivalents to drinking which controlled drinking. Four models of social control arc suggested and discussed.
79.
Levy, J.E. and Stephen J. Kunitz1971 "Indian Drinking: Problems of Data Collection and Interpretation," in M. Chafetz, ed., Proceedings: First Annual Alcoholism Conference of NIAAA, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office: 217-36. A survey of methodologies and theories applied to Indian drinking research. The authors examine the anthropological, sociological, and clinical approaches to data gathering. Pitfalls of each method are discussed as well as the strengths. It is suggested that Indian alcohol research be multidisciplinary and that programs should deal with the problem through the strengths of Native American society, not from the point of view of white society.
80.
Indian Drinking: Navajo Practices and Anglo-American Theories , New York, Wiley-Interscience. Provides a detailed analysis of Navajo male drinking behavior with the data collected in such a manner as to permit cross-cultural comparison. Comparison of the drinking behavior of the White Mountain Apache and Puebloan groups with Navajo drinking patterns is included. The authors believe that patterns of alcohol use may be explained in terms of persisting cultural configurations established in aboriginal times and surviving to the present. They argue against cultural disintegration as a causal factor in the high level of Indian drinking. The authors warn of the dangers in labeling normal Indian drinkers as "sick."
81.
Levy, J.E., Stephen J. Kunitz, and M.W. Everett1969 "Navajo Criminal Homicide," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology25: 124-152. Greatly increased use of alcohol was not found to be associated with an increase in homicides.
82.
Littman, Gerard1970 "Alcoholism, Illness, and Social Pathology among American Indians in Transition," American Journal of Public Health60: 1769-1878. Description of Native American alcoholism and related pathology among residents of Chicago. The physiological variables of Indians in transition, and the needs for appropriate rehabilitation and training programs are discussed. Alcoholism is seen as having its source in emotional and psychological conflicts arising in the urban and Indian-Anglo confrontation situations.
83.
Lurie, Nancy O.1971 "The World's Oldest On-Going Protest Demonstration: North American Indian Drinking Patterns," Pacific Historical Review40: 311-332. Lurie challenges the idea that Indians drink because of an identity crisis. Compares and contrasts Indian drinking behavior with that of Blacks. Hypothesizes that Native Americans want to persist and succeed on their own terms as Indians, while at the same time borrowing freely from the material aspects of white culture. Thus, Indian drinking becomes an established means of asserting and validating Indianness. The author suggests three alternatives to drinking behavior.
84.
1972 "Indian Drinking Patterns," American Journal of Ortlwpsychiatry42: 554. In a letter to the editor, Lurie reaffirms her thesis that Indian drinking is not the problem that the whites would make it out to be, but is, in fact, a functionally adaptive cultural pattern-expressing resistance to the threat posed by white society to the continuation of Indian sociocultural distinctiveness.
85.
MacAndrew, Craig and Robert Edgerton 1969Drunken Comportment: a Social Explanation, Chicago, Aldine. A strongly supported thesis that alcohol-related behavior is essentially a learned behavior. The history of American Indian contact with alcohol and the gradual "learning" of behavior which is classified as "drunken Indian behavior" is detailed. That the Indian learned such behavior from the rejects of European and colonial society is documented.
86.
Mail, Patricia D.1967 "The Prevalence of Problem Drinking in the San Carlos Apache ," MPH thesis, Yale University. 126 pp. Represents a survey of the San Carlos Apache to establish a baseline on drinking behavior. A total of 4418 people were surveyed and drinking behavior was classified into 5 categories. Males drank significantly more than females. Preventive programs for youth and more recreational facilities were deemed necessary.
87.
Maynard, Eileen1969 "Drinking as Part of an Adjustment Syndrome among the Oglala Sioux," Pine Ridge Research Bulletin9: 35-51. A discussion documenting the scope of the drinking problems among the Oglala Sioux using various indices, including arrest records, an acculturation scale, and other socioeconomic factors. Possible causes of drinking are identified, and an alcohol adjustment syndrome is postulated as a means of coping with intolerable stress, especially among the males. Types of stresses impacting on the Sioux are noted, and solutions proposed. Economic problems are singled out as the most plausible area in which to concentrate an attack on problem drinking.
88.
Morris, Joan and Fred Ebrahimi1974 "American Indian Alcoholism Evaluation-Monitoring-Design Project: Final Report," Glendale, California, Tribal American Training Consultants Associated (distributed by National Technical Information Service). 150 pp. A detailed report on the findings of a project to evaluate Native American alcoholism programs and computerize record keeping systems designed for these programs. Six Native American programs participated in the pilot project: Anadarko, Oklahoma; Eagle Butte, South Dakota; Laguna, New Mexico; Pawnee, Oklahoma; Rosebud, South Dakota; and the residential Inter-Tribal Alcoholism Treatment Center at Sheridan, Wyoming.
89.
O'Meara, James E.1933 "The Control of Liquor Traffic among the Indians of New France, and the Work of the Church in Suppressing it," MA thesis, John Carroll University. 49 pp. Documents the use of alcoholic beverages among Native Americans; investigates the relationship between the fur trade and the introduction of liquor to Native Americans. Examines the position of the Catholic Church and the attempt by the Jesuits to prohibit the use and trade of alcohol to Native Americans.
90.
Price, John A.1975 "Applied Analysis of North American Indian Drinking Patterns ," Human Organization34: 17-26. The problems inherent with alcohol consumption have become extremely serious among Indian tribal groups in North America, especially with the breakdown of traditional cultural controls and the frustrations from discrimination, low economic standing, peer group pressures to drink socially, and the spread of pathological drinking patterns such as drinking to unconsciousness. Legal solutions have proved unjust and ineffective. Enhancement of existing social controls within Indian societies as a means of counteracting dysfunctional and self-destructive drinking behavior is recommended, as well as Indian participation and sponsorship of workshop types of educational sessions with regard to alcohol use and abuse.
91.
Query, William T. and Joy M. Query1972 "Aggressive Responses to the Holtzman Inkblot Techniques by Indian and White Alcoholics," Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology3: 413-416. 18 hospitalized Native American alcoholics and 21 hospitalized Anglo alcoholics were examined in order to determine the presence or absence of cultural differences. The authors conclude that no differences were found utilizing behavioral and projective tests, but "... evidence suggests that non-movement-hostile fantasy substitutes for actual aggression among Indians ..." and may be a contributing factor to Native American alcoholism.
92.
Robbins, Richard H.1970 "Drinking Behavior and Identity Resolution," Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. 188 pp. An analysis of Naskapi Indian adaptation to a western wage-earning environment. The drinking behavior of the Naskapi is viewed as a part of the adaptation, a bid for new status reinforcements to replace old status roles.
93.
1973 "Alcohol and the Identity Struggle: Some Effects of Economic Change on Interpersonal Relations," American Anthropologist75: 99-122. Investigates the drinking behavior of male Naskapi Indians utilizing the hypothesis that "... Naskapi drinking interactions serve as a locus of interpersonal conflict which stems from recent changes in their economic life...." Robbins concludes that economic aid programs may prove detrimental rather than beneficial as they change the means of access to goods and activities necessary for identity maintenance.
94.
Roy, Chunilal, Adjit Choudhuri, and Donald Irvine1970 "The Prevalence of Mental Disorders among Saskatchewan Indians," Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology1: 383-392. The authors found the usual definition of alcoholism of little use in detecting cases of alcoholism among Cree and Saulteaux Indians. They report that all Native Americans who once drank heavily, but have stopped, belong to the "Peyote Cult."
95.
Savard, Robert J.1968a "Cultural Stress and Alcoholism: a Study of their Relationships among Navajo Alcoholic Men," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota. 214 pp. The author explores the hypothesis that alcoholic Navajos are less able to express anger and to enter into unconstrained social relationships than are non-alcoholics, and that alcoholic men will report that they are better able to express anger when intoxicated. Savard examines various reported reasons for drinking among the Navajo, as well as patterns of drinking, and comments on the effects of prohibition on the reservation.
96.
1968b "Effects of Disulfiram Therapy on Relationships within the Navajo Drinking Group," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol29: 909-916. A report on a follow-up of 30 Navajo patients in the Fort Defiance Disulfiram Treatment Program. While many patients managed to avoid returning to binge drinking, few found other recreational outlets aside from the drinking peer group. However, observation and interviews indicated that the drinking peer group would accept the explanation of "I'm on the pill" as determined abstinence and would not pressure the individual to resume drinking. Of the study group, a success rate of 75% is reported.
97.
Schaefer, O.1962a "Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome in a Newborn Infant of a Yukon Indian Mother," Canadian Medical Association Journal 87: 1333-1334. A case history is presented in which a newborn Indian infant displays withdrawal symptoms for 5-6 days after his birth. The child, born with signs of alcohol intoxication to an alcoholic mother, was apparently normal in development following his withdrawal and subsequent placement in a foster home.
98.
Sherwin, Duane and Beverley Mead1975 "Delirium Tremens in a Nine Year Old Child," American Journal of Psychiatry132: 1210-1212. Reports the case of a nine-year-old boy, presumed to be Navajo, who was seen in a small northern New Mexico hospital. Upon admission the boy was found to be suffering from delirium tremens. It was determined that he had probably been drinking steadily (i.e. daily) since he was six.
99.
Shore, James H. and Billee von Fumetti1972 "Three Alcohol Programs for American Indians," American Journal of Psychiatry128: 1450-1454. Three tribally sponsored alcohol rehabilitation programs are briefly reviewed against an overview of theories on Indian drinking behavior and previous treatment approaches. The three programs considered include: (1) the Ute Tribal program, (2) the Jicarilla Apache program, and (3) the Nevada Inter-Tribal Council program. Each has developed a treatment approach and philosophy compatible with the Indian community values in which the program is located.
100.
Sievers, M.L.1968 "Cigarette and Alcohol Usage by Southwestern American Indians ," American Journal of Public Health58: 71-78. An observation that lung cancer seldom occurs among southwest Native Americans, while cirrhosis of the liver is widespread led to the study of cigarette and alcohol use. The hypothesis was confirmed that cigarette smoking is infrequent while the consumption of alcohol is prevalent.
101.
Skirrow, Jan1971The North American Indian and Alcohol: a Bibliography, Edmonton, The Alberta Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Commission .
102.
Slater, Arthur D. and Stan L. Albrecht1972 "The Extent and Costs of Excessive Drinking among the Unitah-Ouray Indians," in Howard M. Bahr, Bruce A. Chadwick, and Robert C. Day, eds., Native Americans Today: Sociological Perspective, New York, Harper and Row:358-367. Provides estimates of the cost of excessive drinking to the tribe, the individual, and the agencies involved. Factors contributing to problem drinking include lack of employment opportunities, poor education, and discrimination in hiring practices.
103.
Stewart, Eugene R.1936 "The Liquor Traffic among the Southern Plains Indians, 1835-1875," MA thesis, University of Oklahoma. 107 pp. Discusses the development and expansion of the trade in liquor among several tribes, including the Five Civilized Tribes, the Comanche, the Kiowa, and others. Provides documentation of the various laws pertaining to the provision of liquor to Native Americans.
104.
Stratton, John1973 "Cops and Drunks: Police Attitudes and Actions in Dealing with Indian Drunks," The International Journal of the Addictions8: 613-621. Through interviews and observation the attitudes of police in "Bordertown" are assessed with respect to dealing with Navajo inebriates. Police attitudes ranged from sympathy to viewing the drunk as a moral degenerate. Police frustration was enormous as 85-90% of all arrests were for intoxication. A lack of cultural understanding underlies police attitudes.
105.
Street, Pamela B., Ronald C. Wood, and Rita C. Chowenhill1976Alcohol Use Among Native Americans: a Selective Annotated Bibliography, Sacramento, State of California, Office of Alcoholism.
106.
Stull, Donald D.1973 "Modernization and Symptoms of Stress: Attitudes, Accidents, and Alcohol Use among Urban Papago Indians," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado. 167 pp. The author attempts to determine the effect of modernization upon individual Papago Indians in Tucson, Arizona, through the measurement of psychological stress. Accidental injury and alcohol use provide the social indicators of stress. Relationships between occupation and alcohol use were investigated; however, no correlation was found. The drinking pattern of modern and traditional individuals did not differ significantly.
107.
Swanson, David W., Amos P. Bratrude, and Edward M. Brown1971 "Alcohol Abuse in a Population of Indian Children," Diseases of the Nervous System32: 835-842. This study examines the effects of excessive drinking among children on the Colville Indian Reservation. It is estimated that 75% of the population drinks to impairment. Childhood drinking begins around age 12.
108.
Topper, Martin D.1973 "Navajo Culture, Social Pathology, and Alcohol Abuse: a Broad Interpretation," Paper presented at the 32nd annual meeting of the Society for Applied Anthropology. Navajo drinking is viewed as a response to extreme stress due to an inability of the cultural system to undergo rapid economic change.
109.
Trillin, Calvin1971 "U.S. Journal-Gallup, New Mexico: Drunken Indian," New Yorker47(32): 108-114. Provides a description of the problem faced by Gallup regarding alcohol abuse among Navajos. Includes a popularized description of Navajo drinking patterns and explains the functional aspects of Navajo drinking.
110.
Trudell, John1975 "Alcohol and Native Peoples," Akwesasne Notes 7(4): 38-39. A statement issued by the national chairman of the American Indian Movement regarding the damaging relationship which has developed and exists between alcohol and Native Americans. The author calls for a restoration of the values of "The People."
111.
United States, Indian Health Service1972Alcoholism: a High Priority Health Problem, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, DHEW Publication 73-12002. This publication is a combination of three separate Task Force Reports ( 1969, 1970) issued by the Indian Health Service discussing the problems of alcohol abuse among Indian people. The first section develops background information and reviews factors which may contribute to alcoholism in Indian communities. The second section deals with the problems of prevention, control and treatment and recommends a plan of action. The third section is a reference guide for tribal programs which defines terms and lists resources which may provide assistance in planning and program implementation.
112.
United States, National Institute of Mental Health1973Suicide, Homicide, and Alcoholism among American Indians: Guidelines for Help, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, DHEW Publication 73-9124. An introductory guidebook for individuals working with Indian communities which reviews the national data on Indian suicide, homicide, and alcoholism.
113.
United States, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism1974 "Self-Help Programs for Indians and Native Alaskans," Alcohol Health and Research World1974: 11-16. Briefly discusses the extent of alcohol abuse among Native Americans. Reviews various agencies and programs working to reduce the rate of alcohol abuse. Describes the Alcohol Abuse Prevention program utilized by the Chemawa Indian School near Salem, Oregon.
114.
Vaughan, Frederick1970 "The Case of Joseph Drybones: Legal Forces in the Bill of Rights," Round Table238: 213-216. Discusses the case of Joseph Drybones v. the Queen in which Drybones, an Indian residing in the Northwest Territories of Canada, was arrested and found guilty under section 94(b) of the Indian Act. However, on appeal to the Territorial Court and the Supreme Court of Canada, Drybones' conviction was overturned and the Indian Act was found to be discriminatory and in violation of the Canadian Bill of Rights.
115.
Waddell, Jack O.1971 "Drink Friend: Social Contexts of Convivial Drinking and Drunkenness among Papago Indians in an Urban Setting," in M. Chafetz, ed., Proceedings: First Annual Alcoholism Conference of NIAAA, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office: 237-251. An initial report of the role which drinking and drunkenness play among Papago men, both on the reservation and in an urban setting. Concludes that drinking and drunkenness are social ritual postures which create and maintain social bonds.
116.
1975 "For Individual Power and Social Credit: the Use of Alcohol among Tucson Papagos," Human Organization34: 9-15. The author asserts that two fundamental dimensions of Papago social or cultural reality are related to current drinking experiences. Drinking serves both to maintain a system of social credit and to provide for a means whereby individuals may attain personal power in an otherwise egalitarian social system.
117.
Walker, Constance G.1976 "Influence of Parental Drinking Behavior on that of Adolescent Native Americans," MS thesis, University of Washington . 70 pp. A study designed to survey the behavior and attitudes toward drinking, and to determine how such behavior and attitudes are influenced by parental drinking behavior.
118.
Washburne, Chandler1961Primitive Drinking: a Study of the Uses and Functions of Alcohol in Preliterate Societies, New York, College and University Press. Pages 172-186 report on alcohol use among the Papagos of Southern Arizona. A wide variety of information is provided. A brief outline of Papago culture is included; the method of preparing alcoholic beverages is described, as is the membership of drinking groups. Drinking behavior is analyzed as are the situations in which alcohol is consumed.
119.
Weast, Donald E.1969 "Patterns of Drinking among Indian Youth: the Case of a Wisconsin Tribe," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin . 153 pp. A study of attitudes and drinking practices among Oneida Indian youth, using the theoretical concepts of anomie and differential association to demonstrate that drinking behavior is positively related to anomie in Indian young people. The results indicate that the stereotype of the Oneida adolescent as an excessive drinker is not warranted.
120.
Westermeyer, Joseph J.1970 "Alcohol Related Problems among Ojibway People in Minnesota: a Social Psychiatry Study," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota. 337 pp. The study consists of epidemiological data which permits intra-group and cross-cultural comparisons. The author provides recommendations for primary, secondary, and tertiary preventive programs.
121.
1972a "Chippewa and Majority Alcoholism in the Twin Cities: a Comparison," Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases155: 327-332. A comparative study to determine whether there are any differences between Native American alcoholics and a sample of majority alcoholics. Marked similarities as well as some differences were found. Physiological and clinical traits were similar; the major differences were among sociocultural variables. There is no validity in distinguishing between majority alcoholism and Native American alcoholism as separate or differing entities.
122.
1972b "Options Regarding Alcohol Use among the Chippewa," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry42: 398-403. Chippewa people drink in "white" or "Indian" style or abstain from drinking for various reasons. Their choices are related to individual factors such as age, sex, family role, and past experience with alcohol. There are advantages and disadvantages to each style of drinking depending on the goals of the individual. However, "Indian" drinking functions as an entree to certain social activities and reinforces the corporate in-group of Indian people, thus contributing to the well being of the Chippewa society and the individuals within that society.
123.
1974 " 'The Drunken Indian': Myths and Realities," Psychiatric Annals4(11): 29-36. The author discusses misconceptions and various political strategies associated with the stereotype of the "drunken Indian." Data on alcohol use and alcohol-related problems which are common to Indians are examined. The author concludes that there is a wide variation of alcohol use and abuse among the various tribes and subgroups within tribes. It is also concluded that alcohol problems among Indians resemble alcohol problems common to other ethnic groups in the United States.
124.
Westermeyer, Joseph J. and John Rantner1972 "Violent Death and Alcohol Use among the Chippewa in Minnesota ," Minnesota Medicine55: 749-752. Violent death occurs five times more often among Chippewa than among the general population in Minnesota, and violent deaths are more often associated with alcohol use among the Chippewa than among the general population.
125.
Whittaker, J.O.1962 "Alcohol and the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, I: the Pattern of Drinking," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol23: 468-479. A survey of drinking practices of 208 adult Sioux revealed that about 70% were drinkers. Drinking behavior was examined by age, sex, frequency, and symptoms of problem drinking or alcoholism. Comparisons are made to non-Indian populations.
126.
1963 "Alcohol and the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, II: Psychodynamic and Cultural Factors in Drinking," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol24: 80-90. Consideration of the motivations and contributing factors behind Sioux drinking suggest that contemporary Sioux culture is one in which pressures to drink are strong, there are few alternative means of alleviating such pressures, and social sanctions against heavy drinking are virtually nonexistent.
127.
1966 "The Problem of Alcoholism among American Reservation Indians ," Alcoholism2: 141-146. A summary of the findings of research into problem drinking among the Standing Rock Sioux. The environmental and sociocultural factors contributing to high rates of heavy drinking are noted. Causes of such drinking were attributed to high stress, disintegration of culture, suppression of aggressive tendencies when sober, lack of social sanctions against drunkenness, and an attitude that drinking was utilitarian.
128.
Wilson, Lawrence G. and James H. Shore1975 "Evaluation of a Regional Indian Alcohol Program," American Journal of Psychiatry132: 255-258. An analysis of follow-up data collected on 83 Native American alcoholic males who had been out of inpatient treatment an average of 18 months. A 44% improvement rate compares favorably with other treatment programs, especially in light of the fact that the patient selection process favored more difficult patients at the onset.
129.
Winkler, A.M.1969 "Drinking on the American Frontier," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol29: 413-445. A survey of drinking history, practice, and customs on the American Frontier in the 19th century, especially among fur trappers, miners, cowboys, soldiers, and Indians. It is noted that white traders encouraged intoxication as the cheapest tool for swindling Indians, and a recipe for "Indian whisky" is provided.
130.
Wolff, Peter H.1973 "Vasomotor Sensitivity to Alcohol in Diverse Mongoloid Populations," American Journal of Human Genetics25(2): 193-199. Vasomotor flushing resulting from the ingestion of small quantities of alcohol is prevalent among native Japanese, Chinese and Koreans. The same phenomena is evident among American born Japanese and Chinese and at least one group of Native Americans. The author concludes that such flushing may reflect a genetic variation in vasomotor sensitivity; however, the implications for alcoholism remain unclear.
131.
Wolman, Carol1970 "Group Therapy in Two Languages, English and Navajo," American Journal of Psychotherapy24: 677-685. The treatment of alcoholism among Navajo Indians via psychological therapy is discussed. The author investigates the use of English speaking therapists to treat Navajo speaking alcoholics, and the problems posed by the language barrier.
132.
Zwick, Gwen1940 "Prohibition in the Cherokee Nation, 1820-1907," MA thesis, University of Oklahoma. Chronicles the relationship between the Cherokee Indians and alcohol from 1820-1907. Examines the numerous laws, federal and tribal which at-tempted to deal with alcohol abuse among the Cherokees.
