This study investigates how culture shapes nunchi, a social skill deeply embedded in Confucian collectivist values, across Korean and American contexts. Traditionally viewed as uniquely Korean, nunchi involves sensitivity to subtle social cues and adaptive behavior promoting social harmony. We conducted a cross-cultural validation of the Nunchi Scale to compare cross-cultural differences in factor structure, response patterns, and reliability, and to examine factors associated with nunchi. Confirmatory factor analysis results preliminarily revealed a two-factor structure comprising Grasp (perceiving social cues) and Adjust (responding appropriately), with sufficient reliability across both cultures. Measurement invariance and differential item functioning analyses indicated differences in how Koreans and Americans interpreted individual items, suggesting culturally specific nuances in perceiving and enacting nunchi. Higher nunchi scores were associated with lower autistic traits, greater quality of life, and stronger cultural tightness across both groups. Collectivism correlated with higher nunchi only among Americans, suggesting that in individualistic cultures, nunchi aligns closely with personal collectivist beliefs, whereas in collectivistic cultures, it represents broader societal expectations. These findings underscore nunchi as a universally relevant skill, influenced by specific cultural orientations, and highlight the importance of refining the Nunchi Scale for broader cross-cultural applications and exploring its implications in diverse social contexts.
AgranovichA. V.MelikyanZ. A.PanterA. T. (2020). The culture of time inventory: Comparison of time attitudes pertaining to timed testing in Russian and American adults. Cross-Cultural Research, 55(2-3), 179–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397120967919
2.
AmbadyN.KooJ.LeeF.RosenthalR. (1996). More than words: Linguistic and nonlinguistic politeness in two cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(5), 996–1011. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.996
3.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.
4.
Baron-CohenS.WheelwrightS. (2004). The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(2), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jadd.0000022607.19833.00
5.
BongG.KimS. Y.SongD.KimJ.HongY.YoonN.SunwooH.JangJ. Y.KimJ. M.OhM.LeeK.JungS.ChoiC.RyuJ.YooH. J. (2021). Short caregiver interview and play observation for early screening of autism spectrum disorder: Behavior development screening for toddlers (BeDevel). Autism Research: Official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 14(7), 1472–1483. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2510
6.
BrownJ. D.KobayashiC. (2003). Introduction: Culture and the self-enhancement bias. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34(5), 492–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/002202210325647
7.
BrownP.LevinsonS. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press.
8.
BrownT. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed.). Guilford.
9.
ByrneB. M.ShavelsonR. J.MuthénB. (1989). Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105(3), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.456
10.
CasselsT. G.ChanS.ChungW.BirchS. A. J. (2010). The role of culture in affective empathy: Cultural and bicultural differences. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 10(3-4), 309–326. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853710x531203
11.
ChenC.LeeS.-Y.StevensonH. W. (1995). Response style and cross-cultural comparisons of rating scales among East Asian and North American students. Psychological Science, 6(3), 170–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1995.tb00327.x
12.
ChenY. H. (2024). Cross-cultural validation of the mathematics construct and attribute profiles: A differential item functioning approach. Applied Measurement in Education, 37(4), 356–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/08957347.2024.2438084
13.
ChoY.MillinckrodtB.YuneS. K. (2010). Collectivism and individualism as bicultural values: South Korean undergraduates’ adjustment to college. Asian Journal of Counseling, 17(1), 81–104.
14.
ChoiS. J.ChoiY. H. (1989). The social psychological structure of “Nun-Chi”: A heuristic approach to its conceptualization. 한국심리학회 연차대회 학술논문집, 212–221.
15.
ChopikW. J.O’BrienE.KonrathS. H. (2017). Differences in empathic concern and perspective taking across 63 countries. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 48(1), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022116673910
16.
ConteJ. M. (2005). A review and critique of emotional intelligence measures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 433–440. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.319
17.
CousijnJ.LuijtenM.FeldsteinS. W. (2018). Adolescent resilience to addiction: A social plasticity hypothesis. The Lancet Child and Adolescent Health, 2(1), 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(17)30148-7
18.
DarginidouL.GoulimarisD.MariaG.MavridisG. (2017). Social skills and prediction of quality of life of adolescents: The case of dance and physical activities. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 17(76), 502–508. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2017.s2076
19.
EkermansG. (2009). Emotional intelligence across cultures: Theoretical and methodological considerations. In ParkerJ.SaklofskeD.StoughC. (Eds.), Assessing emotional intelligence. The springer series on human exceptionality (259–290). Springer.
20.
EmbretsonS. E.ReiseS. P. (2000). Item response theory for psychologists. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
21.
GelfandM. J.RaverJ. L.NishiiL.LeslieL. M.LunJ.LimB. C.YamaguchiS.AlmaliachA.AngS.ArnadottirJ.AycanZ.BoehnkeK.BoskiP.CabecinhasR.ChanD.ChhokarJ.D’AmatoA.Subirats FerrerM.FischlmayrI. C. (2011). Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-nation study. Science, 332(6033), 1100–1104. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1197754
22.
Gillespie-LynchK.DaouN.Sanchez-RuizM. J.KappS. K.ObeidR.BrooksP. J.SomekiF.SiltonN.Abi-HabibR. (2019). Factors underlying cross-cultural differences in stigma toward autism among college students in Lebanon and the United States. Autism, 23(8), 1993–2006. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361318823550
23.
HeineS. J.LehmanD. R.PengK.GreenholtzJ. (2002). What’s wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales? The reference-group effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 903–918. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.903
24.
HeoJ.LeeJ. (2013). A study on characteristics of nunchi. Journal of Humanities Therapy, 39, 565–582.
25.
HeoJ.Park (2013). Development and validation of nunchi scale. Korean Journal of Ceramics, 14(6), 3237–3255.
26.
HeoJ.ParkW.KimS. (2012). Conceptualization of nunchi. Journal of Humanities Therapy, 33, 557–581.
27.
HofstedeG.McCraeR. R. (2004). Personality and culture revisited: Linking traits and dimensions of culture. Cross-Cultural Research, 38(1), 52–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397103259443
28.
HurleyR. S.LoshM.ParlierM.ReznickJ. S.PivenJ. (2007). The broad autism phenotype questionnaire. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1679–1690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0299-3
29.
KangS.-J.ShimC. (2021). Factors of influencing empathic ability, nunchi and learning glow on clinical competency in nursing students: Focusing on online clinical practice students during the COVID-19. The Journal of the Convergence on Culture Technology, 7(3), 405–413. https://doi.org/10.17703/JCCT.2021.7.3.405
30.
KimS. H.KimS. (2016). National culture and social desirability bias in measuring public service motivation. Administration & Society, 48(4), 444–476. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399713498749
31.
KimH. J.KimK. (2022). Psychometric properties of the Korean version of the broad autism phenotype questionnaire. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 50(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.11153
32.
KimK.KimU. (1997). Conflict, ingroup and outgroup distinction and mediation: Comparison of Korean and American students. In LeungK.KimU.YamaguchiS.KashimaY. (Eds.), Progress in Asian social psychology (1, pp. 247–259). Wiley.
33.
KimK. H. (2010). A reconsideration of competence in communication in children labeled with autism. Journal of Special Education and Rehabilitation Science, 49(1), 1–20.
KimS. Y.CheonJ. E.Gillespie-LynchK.KimY. H. (2022). Is autism stigma higher in South Korea than the US? Examining cultural tightness, intergroup bias, and concerns about heredity as contributors to heightened autism stigma. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 26(2), 460–472. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613211029520
36.
KimS. Y.Gillespie-LynchK. (2023). Do autistic people’s support needs and non-autistic people’s support for the neurodiversity movement contribute to heightened autism stigma in South Korea vs. the US?Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(11), 4199–4213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05739-0
37.
Kim-RupnowW. (2005). Disability and Korean culture. In StoneJ. H. (Ed.), Culture and disability: Providing culturally competent services (pp. 115–138). Sage.
38.
KroonE.MiesG.WiersR. W.CousijnJ. (2023). Development and validation of the Dutch Social Attunement Questionnaire (SAQ). Social Development, 32(2), 546–565. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12652
39.
LeeM.JeonM. (2023). Effects of nunchi and grit on college adjustment in nursing students. The Korean Journal of Health Service Management, 17(3), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.12811/kshsm.2023.17.3.081
40.
LittleT. D. (2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
41.
Mac CárthaighS.LópezB. (2020). Factually based autism awareness campaigns may not always be effective in changing attitudes towards autism: Evidence from British and South Korean nursing students. Autism, 24(5), 1177–1190. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361319898362
42.
MarkusH. R.KitayamaS. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotionand motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–253. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.98.2.224
MinS. K.KimK. I.LeeC. I.JungY. C.SuhS. Y.KimD. K. (2002). Development of the Korean versions of WHO quality of life scale and WHOQOL-BREF. Quality of Life Research: An International Journal of Quality of Life Aspects of Treatment, Care and Rehabilitation, 11(6), 593–600. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1016351406336
45.
MoonS.-K.MoonJ.-H. (2021). The study of validation and extension of the nunchi scale. 교육문제연구소, 29, 3–28.
46.
OakS. (2000). American/Korean contrasts: Patterns and expectations in the U.S. and Korea. Hollym International.
47.
PellicanoE.AdamsD.CraneL.HollingueC.AllenC.AlmendingerK.BothaM.HaarT.KappS. K.WheeleyE. (2024). Letter to the editor: A possible threat to data integrity for online qualitative autism research. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 28(3), 786–792. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613231174543
48.
PetridesK. B.FurhamA.FredericksonN. (2004). Emotional intelligence. The Psychologist, 17(10), 574–577.
49.
PlessenC. Y.FischerF.HartmannC.LieglG.SchaletB.KaatA. J.PesantezR.JoerisA.HengM.RoseM.AOBERT Consortium (2025). Differential item functioning between English, German, and Spanish PROMIS® physical function ceiling items. Quality of Life Research: An International Journal of Quality of Life Aspects of Treatment, Care and Rehabilitation, 34(5), 1377–1391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-024-03866-y
SakmanE.SümerN. (2024). Cultural correlates of adult attachment dimensions: Comparing the US and Turkey. Cross-Cultural Research, 58(2-3), 208–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/10693971231220437
53.
SamovarL.PorterR.McDanielE.RoyC. (2014). Intercultural communication: A reader. Cengage Learning.
54.
SegrinC.TaylorM. (2007). Positive interpersonal relationships mediate the association between social skills and psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(4), 637–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.01.017
55.
SingelisT. M.TriandisH. C.BhawukD. D.GelfandM. (1995). Horizontal and vertical dimension of individualism and collectivism: A theoretical and measurement refinement. Cross-Cultural Research, 29(3), 240–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/106939719502900302
56.
SkevingtonS. M.LotfyM.O’ConnellK. A.WHOQOL Group. (2004). The World Health Organization’s WHOQOL-BREF quality of life assessment: Psychometric properties and results of the international field trial. A report from the WHOQOL group. Quality of Life Research, 13(2), 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:QURE.0000018486.91360.00
57.
SomekiF.TorriM.BrooksP. J.Gillespie-LynchK. (2018). Stigma associated with autism among college students in Japan and the United States. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 76, 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.02.016
58.
SongJ.-Y.ParkK.-H. (2009). The sociocultural variables influencing social anxiety with concern for offending others: Focusing on che-myeon, nun-chi, and self-construal. The Korean Journal of Health Psychology, 14(2), 329–343. https://doi.org/10.17315/kjhp.2009.14.2.007
59.
TriandisH. C.GelflandM. J. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.1.118
60.
van de VijverF. J. R.LeungK. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Sage Publications, Inc.
YangJ.LieJ. (2010). Has the Collectivism of Koreans been changed? An exploratory study. Journal of Korea Contents Associations, 20(12), 593–610. https://doi.org/10.5392/JKCA.2020.20.12.593
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
