We studied collective identity and psychological well-being in Bulgarian adolescents (305 mainstreamers, 278 Turkish-Bulgarians, and 183 Muslim-Bulgarians). Turkish-Bulgarian and Muslim-Bulgarian minorities (ethnic Bulgarians converted to Islam during the Ottoman Empire) have been subjected to severe assimilation policies until recently. A multigroup confirmatory analysis showed that ethnic, religious, and familial identities were significantly and positively related to a single underlying factor we labeled collective identity. Bulgarian identity was unrelated to collective identity in the Turkish-Bulgarian group. As expected, mainstream adolescents showed a stronger Bulgarian and weaker religious identity than Turkish-Bulgarian and Muslim-Bulgarian adolescents. In all groups, individuals with a stronger collective identity reported higher levels of well-being. We conclude that the concept of collective identity is useful to link various identity components to well-being of youth from different ethnic groups.
AbbottsJ. E.WilliamsR. G. A.SweetingH. N.WestP. B. (2004). Is going to church good or bad for you? Denomination, attendance and mental health of children in West Scotland. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 645-656. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00283-1
2.
AngelovA. G.MarshallD. F. (2006). Introduction: Ethnolinguistic minority language policies in Bulgaria and their Balkan context. International Journal of Sociology of Language, 179, 1-28. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2006.022
3.
ArbuckleJ. (2009). Amos 18. Crawfordville, FL: AMOS Development Corporation.
4.
Arends-TóthJ.Van de VijverF. J. R. (2008). Family relationships among immigrants and majority members in the Netherlands. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57, 466-487. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00331.x
5.
AshmoreR. D.DeauxK.McLaughlin-VolpeT. (2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 80-114. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.80
6.
AwadG. H. (2010). The impact of acculturation and religious identification on perceived discrimination for Arab/Middle Eastern Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 59-67. doi:10.1037/a0016675
7.
BaggerJ.LiA.GutekB. (2008). How much do you value your family and does it matter? The joint effects of family identity salience, family-interference with work, and gender. Human Relations, 6, 187-211. doi:10.1177/0018726707087784
8.
BartkowskiJ. P.XuX.LevinM. L. (2008). Religion and child development: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Social Science Research, 37, 18-36. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2007.02.001
9.
BombayA.MathesonK.AnismanH. (2010). Decomposing identity: Differential relationships between several aspects of ethnic identity and the negative effects of perceived discrimination among first nation adults in Canada. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 507-515. doi:10.1037/a0021373
10.
BranscombeN. R.SchmittM. T.HarveyR. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 135-149. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.135
11.
CheekJ. M. (1989). Identity orientation and self-interpretation. In BussD. M.CantorN. (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 275-285). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
12.
CostiganC. L.KoryzmaC. M.HuaJ. M.ChanceL. J. (2010). Ethnic identity, achievement, and psychological adjustment: Examining risk and resilience among youth from immigrant Chinese families in Canada. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 264-273. doi:10.1037/a0017275
13.
DienerE.EmmonsR. A.LarsenR. J.GriffinS. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
14.
DimitrovV. (2000). In search of a homogeneous nation: The assimilation of Bulgaria’s Turkish minority, 1984-1985. Flensburg, Germany: European Center for Minority Issues (ECMI) Report.
15.
DimitrovaR.ChasiotisA.BenderM.van de VijverF. J. R. (2012). Collective identity and well-being of Roma minority adolescents in Bulgaria. International Journal of Psychology, 48, 502-513. doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.682064
16.
DimitrovaR.ChasiotisA.BenderM.van de VijverF. J. R. (2013). Collective identity and well-being of Bulgarian Roma adolescents and their mothers. Manuscript submitted for publication.
17.
EminovA. (2007). Social construction of identities: Pomaks in Bulgaria. Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe, 2, 1-25.
18.
EriksonE. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
19.
FuligniA. J.FlookL. (2005). A social identity approach to ethnic differences in family relationships during adolescence. In KailR. (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (pp. 125-152). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.
20.
FurrowJ. L.KingP. E.WhiteK. (2004). Religion and positive youth development: Identity, meaning, and prosocial concerns. Applied Developmental Science, 8, 17-26. doi:10.1207/S1532480XADS0801_3
21.
GanevV. (2004). History, politics, and the constitution: Ethnic conflict and constitutional adjudication in postcommunist Bulgaria. Slavic Review, 63, 66-89. doi:10.2307/1520270
22.
GenovN. (2010). Radical nationalism in contemporary Bulgaria. Review of European Studies, 2, 35-53.
23.
GhavamiN.FingerhutA.PeplauL.GrantS. K.WittingM. A. (2011). Testing a model of minority identity achievement, identity affirmation, and psychological well-being among ethnic minority and sexual minority individuals. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 79-88. doi:10.1037/a0022532
24.
GhodseeK. (2005). Examining “Eastern” aid: Muslim minorities and Islamic foundations in Bulgaria. The Anthropology of East Europe Review: Central Europe, Eastern Europe and Eurasia, 23, 63-71.
25.
HaddadY. Y.SmithJ. I. (2001). Muslim minorities in the West: Visible and invisible. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press.
26.
HalmanL. C. J. M.PettersonT. (2001). Religion and social capital in contemporary Europe: Results from the 1999/2000 European Values Study. In MobergD. O.PiedemontR. L. (Eds.), Research in the social scientific study of religion (pp. 65-94). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
27.
HoggM. A.AbramsD. (1988). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group process. London, England: Routledge.
28.
JungerM.PolderW. (1993). Religiosity among ethnic groups in the Netherlands. British Journal of Criminology, 33, 416-435.
29.
KanevP. (2002). Religion in Bulgaria after 1989: Historical and socio-cultural aspects. South East Europe Review for Labour and Social Affairs, 1, 75-95.
30.
KiangL.YipT.FuligniA. J. (2008). Multiple social identities and adjustment in young adults from ethnically diverse backgrounds. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18, 643-670. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00575.x
31.
KlineR. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.
32.
LittleT. D.CardN. A.SlegersD. W.LedfordE. C. (2007). Modeling contextual effects in multiple-group MACS models. In LittleT.D.BovairdJ. A.CardN. A. (Eds.), Modeling ecological and contextual effects in longitudinal studies of human development (pp. 121-147). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
33.
LopezA. B.HuynhV. W.FuligniA. J. (2011). A longitudinal study of religious identity and participation during adolescence. Child Development, 82, 1297-1309. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01609.x
34.
MaevaM. (2005). Bulgarian Turks and the European Union. In RusuH.VoicuB. (Eds.), EU Integration process from EAST to EAST: Civil society and ethnic minorities in a changing world—Proceedings from a round table for young social scientists (pp. 119-126). Sibiu, Bulgaria: Psihomedia Publishing House.
35.
MarciaJ. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In AdelsonJ. (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 159-187). New York, NY: Wiley.
36.
MasoodN.OkazakiS.TakeuchiD. T. (2009). Gender, family, and community correlates of mental health in South Asian Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 265-274. doi:10.1037/a0014301265
37.
MihaylovaD. (2006). Social suffering and political protest: Mapping emotions and power among Pomaks in postsocialist Bulgaria. In SvašekM. (Ed.), Postsocialism: Politics and emotions in Central and Eastern Europe (pp. 53-73). Oxford, UK: Berghahn Books.
38.
Minority Rights Group International. (2008). World directory of minorities and indigenous peoples—Bulgaria: Bulgarian-speaking Muslims (Pomaks). Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49749d4737.html
39.
National Statistical Institute. (2011). Census 2011. Sofia, Bulgaria: NSI Press.
40.
PetkovaL. (2002). The ethnic Turks in Bulgaria: Social integration and impact on Bulgarian-Turkish relations, 1947-2000. The Global Review of Ethnopolitics, 1, 42-59. doi:10.1080/14718800208405112
41.
PhaletK. (2004). Moslim in Nederland: Religie en integratie [Muslim in the Netherlands: Religion and integration]. The Hague, The Netherlands: Sociaal Cultureel Planbureau.
42.
PhinneyJ. S. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity development in minority group adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 34-49. doi:10.1177/0272431689091004
43.
PhinneyJ. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499-514. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499
44.
PhinneyJ. S. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scale for use with adolescents and young adults from diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156-176. doi:10.1177/074355489272003
45.
PhinneyJ. S.HorenczykG.LiebkindK.VedderP. (2001). Ethnic identity, immigration, and well-being: An interactional perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 493-510. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00225
46.
PhinneyJ. S.OngA. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 271-281. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271
47.
PughL. A.BryB. H. (2007). The protective effects of ethnic identity for alcohol and marijuana use among Black young adults. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 187-193. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.2.187
48.
RaichevskiS. (1998). Balgarskite mohamedani [The Muslim Bulgarians]. Sofia, Bulgaria: Sofia University Press.
49.
RudinC.EminovA. (1993). Bulgarian nationalism and Turkish language in Bulgaria. In FraenkelE.KramerC. (Eds.), Language contact language conflict (pp. 44-71). New York, NY: Peter Lang.
50.
SaroglouV.GalandP. (2004). Identities, values, and religion: A study among Muslim, other immigrant, and native Belgian young adults after the 9/11 attacks. Identity, 4, 97-132. doi:10.1207/s1532706xid0402_1
51.
SchwartzS. J.WeisskirchR. S.HurleyE. A.ZamboangaB. L.ParkI. J. K.KimS. Y.. . . GreeneA. D. (2010). Communalism, familism, and filial piety: Are they birds of a collectivist feather?Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 548-560. doi:10.1037/a0021370
52.
SmithT. B.SilvaL. (2011). Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 42-60. doi:10.1037/a0021528
53.
SrebranovR. (2006). Bulgarian Muslims from the Chech region and their linguistic self-identification. International Journal of Sociology of Language, 179, 131-143. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2006.030
54.
SteidelA. G. L.ContrerasJ. M. (2003). A new familism scale for use with Latino populations. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 25, 312-330. doi:10.1177/0739986303256912
TajfelH.TurnerJ. C. (1986). The Social Identity Theory of intergroup behavior. In WorchelS.AustinW. G. (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
57.
TorresL.OngA. D. (2010). A daily diary investigation of Latino ethnic identity, discrimination, and depression. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 561-568. doi:10.1037/a0020652
58.
TuranO. (1999). Pomaks, their past and present. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 19, 69-83. doi:10.1080/13602009908716425
59.
TurnerJ. C. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
60.
UdelW.DonenbergG.EmersonE. (2011). The impact of mental health problems and religiosity on African-American girls’ HIV-risk. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 217-224. doi:10.1037/a0023243
61.
Umaña-TaylorA. J.DiversiM.FineM. A. (2002). Ethnic identity and self-esteem of Latino adolescents: Distinctions among the Latino populations. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17, 303-327. doi:10.1177/0743558402173005
62.
Van de VijverF. J. R.LeungK. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
63.
VerkuytenM. (2005). The social psychology of ethnic identity. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
64.
VerkuytenM.NekueeS. (1999). Subjective well-being, discrimination and cultural conflict: Iranians living in the Netherlands. Social Indicators Research, 47, 281-306. doi:10.1023/A:1006970410593
65.
VerkuytenM.YildizA. A. (2009). Muslim immigrants and religious group feelings: Self-identification and attitudes among Sunni and Alevi Turkish-Dutch. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32, 1121-1142. doi:10.1080/01419870802379312
66.
WarholaJ. W.BotevaO. (2010). The Turkish minority in contemporary Bulgaria. Nationalities Papers: The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity, 31, 255-279. doi:10.1080/0090599032000115484
67.
WatsonD.ClarkL. A.TellegenA. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
68.
YapS. C. Y.SettlesI. H.Pratt-HyattJ. S. (2011). Mediators of the relationship between racial identity and life satisfaction in a community sample of African American women and men. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 89-97. doi:10.1037/a0022535
