This article examines the connection between leadership and citizenship behaviors in a comparative study of Brazilian and U.S. employees. The influence of country and power distance orientation on the relationship between perceived charismatic leadership and follower organizational citizenship behaviors is analyzed statistically, while controlling for demographic factors. Given the ambivalent frameworks and findings in the literature, we also proposed and tested a quadratic effect of power distance orientation on citizenship behaviors, and analyzed the adequacy of the model to explain two dimensions of citizenship: altruism and generalized compliance. We found that charismatic leadership was positively associated with citizenship behaviors in the U.S. group, but not in the Brazilian group. Although the groups differed regarding power distance orientations, that cultural factor did not significantly moderate the relationship between charismatic leadership and citizenship behaviors, only country of origin did. However, we confirmed that both very high and low power distance orientation were associated with citizenship behaviors across the samples. While the tested hypotheses were confirmed when altruism was the criteria, the same was not observed regarding generalized compliance. We discuss the implications of these findings for theory, research, and practice.
BassB. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York, NY: Free Press.
5.
BassB. M. (1989). Evolving perspectives on charismatic. In CongerJ. A.KanungoR. N. (Eds.), Charismatic leadership, the elusive factor in organizational effectiveness (pp 40-77). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
6.
BassB. M. (1990). Bass and Stogdill’s handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press.
7.
BassB. M. (1997). Does the transactional-transformational leadership paradigm transcend organizational and national boundaries? American Psychologist, 52, 130.
8.
BrocknerJ.AckermanG.GreenbergJ.GelfandM.FrancescoA.ChenZ.ShapiroD. (2001). Culture and procedural justice: The influence of power distance on reactions to voice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 300-315.
9.
BurnsJ. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
10.
CarlD.GuptaV.JavidanM. (2004). Power distance. In HouseR. J.HangesP. J.JavidanM.DorfmanP. W.GuptaV. (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 513-563). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
11.
CasimirG.WaldmanD. A. (2007). A cross cultural comparison of the importance of leadership traits for effective low-level and high-level leaders: Australia and China. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 7, 47-60.
CohenJ.CohenP.WestS. G.AikenL. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
14.
CoyneI.OngT. (2007). Organizational citizenship behaviour and turnover intention: A cross-cultural study. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18, 1085-1097.
15.
DaMattaR. (1991). Carnivals, rogues, and heroes: An interpretation of the Brazilian dilemma. Notre Dame, IN: Kellog Institute of International Studies—University of Notre Dame Press.
16.
DaMattaR. (1986). O que faz o Brasil, Brasil?[What makes Brazil, Brazil?]. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: José Olympio.
17.
DicksonM. W.HangesP. J.LordR. G. (2001). Trends, developments, and gaps in crosscultural research on leadership. In MobleyW.McCallM. (Eds.), Advances in global leadership, (vol. 2, pp. 75-100). Stamford, CT: JAI.
18.
DicksonM. W.HartogD.MitchelsonJ. K. (2003). Research on leadership in cross-cultural context: Making progress, and raising new questions. Leadership Quarterly, 14, 729-768.
19.
EarleyP. C.ErezM. (1997). The transplanted executive: Why you need to understand how workers in other countries see the world differently. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
20.
EuwemaM. C.WendtH.Van EmmerikH. (2007). Leadership styles and group organizational citizenship behavior across cultures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28, 1035-1057.
21.
FarhJ. L.EarleyP. C.LinS. C. (1997). Impetus for action: A cultural analysis of justice and organizational citizenship behavior in Chinese society. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 421-444.
22.
FreitasA. B. (1997). Traços Brasileiros para uma Análise Organizacional [Brazilian traits for an organizational analysis]. In Prestes MottaF. C.CaldasM. P. (Eds.), Cultura Organizacional e Cultura Brasileira [Organizational culture and Brazilian culture] (pp. 38-54). São Paulo, Brazil: Atlas.
23.
FreyreG. (1987). The masters and the slaves (Casa-grande e Senzala): A study in the development of Brazilian civilization (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
24.
FreyreG. (1966). New world in the tropics. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
25.
FullerJ. B.PattersonC. E. P.HesterK.StringerD. Y. (1996). A quantitative review of research on charismatic leadership. Psychological Reports, 78, 271-287.
26.
FunderburgS.LevyP. (1997). The influence of individual and contextual variables on multi-rater feedback system attitudes, Group and Organization Management, 22, 210-235.
GoodwinV. L.WoffordJ. C.WhittingtonJ. L. (2001). A theoretical and empirical extension of transformational leadership construct. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 759-776.
29.
GraenG. B. (1976). Role making processes within complex organizations. In DunnetteM. D. (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1201-1245). Chicago, IL: Rand-McNally.
30.
HolandaS. B. (1984). Raízes do Brasil [Roots of Brazil] (17th ed.). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: J. Olympio.
31.
HofstedeG. H. (1991). Culture and organizations: Software of the mind. London, UK: McGraw-Hill.
32.
HofstedeG. (2001). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work related values (2001edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
33.
HouseR. J. (1977). A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership. In HuntJ. G.LarsonL. L. (Eds.), Leadership: The cutting edge (pp 189-204). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
34.
HouseR. J.AdityaR. N. (1997). The social scientific study of leadership: Quo Vadis?Journal of Management, 23, 409.
35.
HouseR. J.HangesP. J.JavidanM.DorfmanP. W.GuptaV. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
36.
HouseR. J.ShamirB. (1993). Toward the integration of transformational, charismatic and visionary theories. In ChermersM. M.AymanR. (Eds.), Leadership theory and research: perspectives and direction (pp. 81-107). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
37.
HouseR. J.SpanglerD.WoyckeJ. (1991). Personality and charisma in U.S. Presidency: A psychological theory of leadership effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36, 364-396.
38.
IBGE—Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statics. (2008). National survey of households: Summary of indicators—Income. Retrieved from www.ibge.gov.br
JavidanM.CarlD. E. (2004). East meets west: A cross-cultural comparison of charismatic leadership among Canadian and Iranian executives. Journal of Management Studies, 41, 665-691.
43.
JavidanM.DorfmanP. W.De LuqueM.HouseR. J. (2006). In the eye of the beholder: Cross-cultural lessons in leadership from project GLOBE. Academy of Management Perspectives, 20, 67-90.
44.
JiaoC.RichardsD. A.ZhangK. (2011). Leadership and organizational citizenship behavior: OCB-specific meanings as mediators. Journal of Business and Psychology, 26, 11-25.
45.
JohnsonJ. P.LenartowiczT.ApudS. (2006). Cross-cultural competence in international business: Toward a definition and a model. Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 525-543.
46.
JudgeT. A.PiccoloR. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 755-768.
47.
KarrikerJ. H.WilliamsM. L. (2009). Organizational justice and organizational citizenship behavior: A mediated multifoci model. Journal of Management, 35, 112.
48.
KarkR.ShamirB. (2002). The dual effect of transformational leadership: Priming relational and collective selves and further effects on followers. In AvolioB. J.YammarinoF. J. (Eds.), Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead (pp. 67-91). Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science.
49.
KirkmanB. L.ChenG.ChenZ. X.LoweK. B. (2009). Individual power distance orientation and follower reactions to transformational leaders: A cross-level, cross-cultural examination. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 744-764.
50.
KirkmanB. L.LoweK. B.GibsonC. B. (2006). A quarter century of culture’s consequences: A review of empirical research incorporating Hofstede’s cultural value framework. Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 285-320.
51.
KwantesC.KaranC.KuoB.TowsonS. (2008). Culture’s influence on the perception of OCB as in-role or extra-role. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32, 229-243.
52.
LamS. S.HuiC.LawK. S. (1999). Organizational citizenship behavior: Comparing perspectives of supervisors and subordinates across four international samples. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 594-601.
53.
LePineJ. A.ErezA.JohnsonD. E. (2002). A meta-analysis of the dimensionality of organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 52-65.
54.
LoweK. B.KroeckK. G.SivasubramaniamN. (1996). Effectiveness correlates of transformational leadership and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 385-425.
MintzbergH.GoslingJ. (2002). Educating managers beyond borders. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 1(1), 64-76.
57.
MoormanR. H.BlakelyG. L. (1995). Individualism-collectivism as an individual difference predictor of organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16, 127-142.
58.
MorrisonE. W. (1994). Role definitions and organizational citizenship behavior: The importance of the employee’s perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 1543-1567.
59.
MottaF. C. P.AlcadipaniR.BreslerR. B. (2001). A valorização do estrangeiro como segregação nas organizações [The valuation of the foreign as segregation in organizations]. RAC - Revista de Administração Contemporânea [RAC-Journal of Contemporary Administration], edição especial, 59-79.
60.
OrganD. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
61.
OrganD. W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior: It’s construct clean-up time. Human Performance, 10, 85-97.
62.
OrganD. W.PodsakoffP. M.MacKenzieS. B. (2006). Organizational citizenship behavior. Its nature, antecedents, and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
63.
PaineJ. B.OrganD. W. (2000). The cultural matrix of organizational citizenship behavior: Some preliminary conceptual and empirical observations. Human Resource Management Review, 10, 45-59.
64.
PetersonM. F.WoodR. E. (2008). Cognitive structures and processes in cross-cultural management. In SmithP. B.PetersonM. F.ThomasD. C. (Eds.), Handbook of cross cultural management research (pp. 15-34). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
65.
PillaiR.SchriesheimC. A.WilliamsE. S. (1999). Fairness perceptions and trust as mediators for transformational and transactional leadership: A two-sample study. Journal of Management, 25, 897-933.
66.
PodsakoffP. M.MacKenzieS. B.MoormanR. H.FetterR. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107-142.
67.
PodsakoffP. M.MackenzieS. B.PaineJ. B. E.BachrachD. G. (2000). Organizational citizenship behaviors: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management, 26, 513-563.
68.
PratesM. A. S.BarrosB. T. (1997). O estilo brasileiro de administrar—Sumário de um modelo de ação cultural brasileiro com base na gestão empresarial [The Brazilian management style: Summary of an Brazilian cultural action model based on business management]. In Pretes MottaF. C.CaldasM. P. (Eds.), Cultura Organizacional e Cultura Brasileira [Organizational culture and Brazilian culture] (pp. 55-69). São Paulo, Brazil: Atlas.
69.
RandallM. L.CropanzanoR.BormannC. A.BirjulinA. (1999). Organizational politics and organizational support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 159-174.
70.
SalancikG. R.PfefferJ. (1978). A social information processing approach to job attitudes and task design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 224-253.
71.
ShamirB.HouseR. J.ArthurM. B. (1993). The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self-concept based theory. Organization Science, 4, 1-17.
72.
ShamirB.HowellJ. (1999). Organizational and contextual influences on the emergence and effectiveness of charismatic leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 10, 257-283.
73.
SmithC. A.OrganD. W.NearJ. P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 655-663.
74.
TsuiA. S.NifadkarS. S.OuA. Y. (2007). Crossnational, cross-cultural organizational behavior research: Advances, gaps, and recommendations. Journal of Management, 33, 426-478.
75.
Van DyneL.VandewalleD.KostovaT.LathamM. E.CummingsL. L. (2000). Collectivism, propensity to trust and self-esteem as predictors of organizational citizenship in a non-work setting. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 3-23.
76.
WilliamsL. J.AndersonS. E. (1994). An alternative approach to method effects using latent-variable models: Applications in organizational behavior research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 323-331.
YanJ.HuntJ. G. (2005). A cross cultural perspective on perceived leadership effectiveness. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 5, 49-66.
