In this article, we overview the literature on women's career barriers and identify potential external, environmental barriers and individual, socialized barriers to women's career adjustment. We describe a variety of assessment strategies and instruments that may be utilized to assess barriers to women's career adjustment. A case example is provided to illustrate the assessment process.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adams, J.W., Kottke, J.L., & Padgitt, J.S. (1983). Sexual harassment of university students. Journal of College and Student Personnel, 24, 484-490.
2.
Andberg, W.I., Follett, C.V., & Hendel, D.D. (1979). Career influences, educational experiences, and professional attitudes of women and men in veterinary medicine. Journal of College Student Personnel, 20, 158-165.
3.
Astin, H.S. (1984). The meaning of work in women's lives: A sociopsychological model of career choice and work behavior. The Counseling Psychologist , 12(4), 117-126.
4.
Baker, D.B., Strub, S.O., & Henning, B. (1995). Cracking the corporate closet. New York: HarperCollins.
5.
Bala, D.L., & Subich, L.M. (1993, August). Role self-efficacy and women's career indecision. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario , Canada.
6.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
7.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122-147.
8.
Beere, C.A. (1990). Gender roles: A handbook of tests and measurements . Westport, CT: Greenwood Press .
9.
Betz, N.E. (1994). Basic issues and concepts. In W. B. Walsh and S. H. Osipow (Eds.), Career counseling for women (pp. 1-41). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
10.
Betz, N.E., & Fitzgerald, L. (1987). The career psychology of women. Orlando, FL: Academic Press .
11.
Bingham, R.P., & Ward, C.M. (1994). Career counseling with ethnic minority women. In W. B. Walsh and S. H. Osipow (Eds.), Career counseling for women (pp. 135-165). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
12.
Brooks, L., & Forrest, L. (1994). Feminism and career counseling. In W. B. Walsh and S. H. Osipow (Eds.), Career counseling for women (pp. 87-134). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
13.
Burlew, A.K., & Johnson, J.L. (1992). Role conflict and career advancement among African American women in nontraditional professions. The Career Development Quarterly, 40(4), 302-312.
14.
Cook, E.P. (1993). The gendered context of life: Implications for women's and men's career life plans. The Career Development Quarterly, 41, 227-237.
15.
Cook, E.P. (1997). Gender discrimination in Jessica's career. Career Development Quarterly, 46, 148-154.
16.
Crites, J.O. (1969). Vocational psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
17.
Crites, J.O. (1976). A comprehensive model of career development in early adulthood. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 9, 105-118.
18.
Dawis, R.V., & Lofquist, L.H. (1984). A psychological theory of work adjustment. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
19.
Dewey, C.R. (1974). Exploring interests: A non-sexist method. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 52, 311-315.
20.
Douvan, E. (1976). The role of models in women's professional development . Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1, 5-20.
21.
Dworkin, S. H., & Gutierrez, F. J. (Eds.) (1992). Counseling gay men and lesbians: Journey to the end of the rainbow. Alexandria, VA: American Association of Counseling & Development .
22.
Farmer, H.S. (1976). What inhibits achievement and career motivation in women? The Counseling Psychologist, 6, 12-14.
23.
Fitzgerald, L.F., & Rounds, J. (1994). Women and work: Theory encounters reality. In W. B. Walsh and S. H. Osipow (Eds.), Career counseling for women (pp. 327-355). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
24.
Fitzgerald, L.F., Shullman, S.L., Bailey, N., Richards, M., Swecker, J., Gold, Y., Ormerod, M., & Weitzman, L.M. (1988). The incidence and dimensions of sexual harassment in academia and the workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 32, 152-175.
25.
Fitzgerald, L.F., & Weitzman, L.M. (1992). Women's career development: Theory and practice from a feminist perspective. In H. D. Lea & Z. B. Leibowitz (Eds.), Adult career development: Concepts, issues, and practices (2nd. ed.) (pp. 124-160). Alexandria, VA: The National Career Development Association.
26.
Frye, J. (1984, August). Success and satisfaction: Does it make a difference who you ask? Paper presented at the convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
27.
Gainor, K.A., & Forrest, L. (1991). African American women's self-concept: Implications for career decisions and career counseling. The Career Development Quarterly, 39(3), 261-272.
28.
Gandara, P. (1982). Passing through the eye of the needle: High-Achieving Chicanas. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 4(2), 167-179.
29.
Garnets, L., Hancock, K.A., Cochran, S.D., Goodchilds, J., & Peplau, L.A. (1991). Issues in psychotherapy with lesbians and gay men: A survey of psychologists. American Psychologist, 46(9), 964-972.
30.
Geis, F.L. (1993). Self-fulfilling prophecies: A social psychological view of gender. In A. E. Beall & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology of gender (pp. 9-53). New York: Guilford.
31.
Gelberg, S., & Chojnacki, J.T. (1996). Career and life planning with gay, lesbian, & bisexual persons. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
32.
Goldman, L. (1990). Qualitative assessment. The Counseling Psychologist, 18, 205-213.
33.
Hackett, G., & Lonborg, S. (1994). Career assessment and counseling for women. In W. B. Walsh and S. H. Osipow (Eds.), Career counseling for women (pp. 42-86). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
34.
Hahn, H. (1988). The politics of physical differences: Disability and discrimination. Journal of Social Issues, 44(1), 39-47.
35.
Harlan, A., & Weiss, C.L. (1982). Sex differences in factors affecting managerial advancement. In P. A. Wallace (Ed.), Women and the workplace (pp. 59-100). Boston: Auburn House.
36.
Heppner, P.P., Cook, S.W., Strozier, A.L., & Heppner, M.J. (1991). An investigation of coping styles and gender differences with farmers in career transition. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 38(2), 167-174.
37.
Herek, G.M. (1989). Hate crimes against lesbians and gay men: Issues for research and policy. American Psychologist, 44(6), 948-955.
38.
Hershenson, D.B. (1981). Work adjustment, disability, and the three r's of vocational rehabilitation: A conceptual model. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 25, 91-97.
39.
Hershenson, D.B. (1996). Work adjustment: A neglected area in career counseling . Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 442-446.
40.
Highlen, P.S., & Sudarsky-Gleiser, C. (1994). Co-Essence Model of Vocational Assessment for Racial/Ethnic Minorities (CEMVA-REM): An existential approach . Journal of Career Assessment, 2(3), 304-329.
41.
Holland, J.L., Daiger, D.C., & Power, P.G. (1980). My Vocational Situation: Description of an Experimental Diagnostic Form for the Selection of Vocational Assistance. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
42.
Holzbauer, J.J., & Berven, N.L. (1996). Disability harassment: A new term for a longstanding problem. Journal of Counseling and Development, 74(5), 478-483.
43.
Hood, A.B., & Johnson, R.W. (1997). Assessment in counseling. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
44.
Insel, P., & Moos, R.H. (1991). Work Environment Scale (WES) review. In R. C. Sweetland & D. J. Keyser (Eds.), Tests: A comprehensive reference for assessments in psychology, education, and business (p. 1038). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed .
45.
Johnson, P.J. (1982). Development of a measure of job time-demands. Psychological Reports, 51, 1087-1094.
46.
Jones, L.K. (1979). Occ-U-Sort: Development and evaluation of an occupational card sort system. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 28, 56-62.
47.
Knowdell, R.L. (1995). Career Values Card Sort Planning Kit. San Jose, CA: Career Research and Testing .
48.
Krieshok, T.S., Hansen, R.N., & Johnston, J.A. (1982). Missouri Occupational Card Sort Manual (college form). Available from the Career Planning and Placement Center, 100 Noyes Hall, University of Missouri-Columbia , Columbia, MO.
49.
Kutner, N.G., & Brogan, D.R. (1980). The decision to enter medicine: Motivation, social support, and discouragements for women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5, 321-340.
50.
Lefcourt, L.A., & Harmon, L.W. (1993, August). Self-Efficacy Expectations for Role Management (SEERM): Measure development. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
51.
Lent, R.W., Brown, S.D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career, academic interest, choice and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122.
52.
Lieberman, M. (1992). Preventing hate crime: New tools, new expectations for law enforcement. The Police Chief, 59, 33-35.
53.
Lofquist, L.H., & Dawis, R.V. (1969). Adjustment to work. New York : Appleton-Century-Crofts.
54.
Lofquist, L.H., & Dawis, R.V. (1991). Essentials of person-environment correspondence counseling. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
55.
Loyd, B.H. (1995). Review of the Family Environment Scale, Second Edition (FES). In J. C. Conoley, J. C. Impara, & L. L. Murphy (Eds.), The twelfth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 385-386). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
56.
Lucas, E.B., Gysbers, N.C., Buescher, K.L., & Heppner, P.P. (1988). My Vocational Situation: Normative, psychometric, and comparative data. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 20, 162-170.
57.
Lucas, M.S., & Epperson, D.L. (1990). Types of vocational undecidedness: A replication and refinement. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 37(4), 382-388.
58.
Luzzo, D.A. (1993). Ethnic differences in college students' perceptions of barriers to career development. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 21(4), 227-236.
59.
Mael, F.A. (1991). Career constraints of observant Jews. The Career Development Quarterly, 39(3), 341-349.
60.
McWhirter, E.H. (1994). Counseling for empowerment (pp. 125-139). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association Press .
61.
McWhirter, E.H. (1997). Empowerment, social activism, and counseling. Counseling and Human Development, 29(8), 1-14.
62.
McWhirter, E.H. (1998). An empowerment model of counsellor training. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 32(1), 12-26.
63.
Meara, N.M., Davis, K.L., & Robinson, B.S. (1997). The working lives of women from lower socioeconomic backgrounds: Assessing prospects, enabling success . Journal of Career Assessment, 5, 115-135.
64.
Mickens, E. (1994). The 100 best companies for gay men and lesbians . New York: Pocket Books.
Moos, R.H., & Moos, B. (1986). Family Environment Scale manual (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
67.
Moses, J.A. (1994). Work Environment Scale review. In D. J. Keyser & R. C. Sweetland (Eds.), Test critiques (pp. 828-842). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
68.
Nieva, V.F., & Gutek, B.A. (1981). Woman and work: A psychological perspective. New York: Praeger.
69.
O'Connell, A.N. (1978). Gender-specific barriers to research in psychology: Report of the task force on women doing research-APA Division 35. Journal Supplements Abstract Service, 1753, 1-10.
70.
O'Connell, A.N., & Russo, N.F. (1980). Eminent women in psychology: Models of achievement . Special issue of the Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5(1).
71.
O'Leary, V.E. (1974). Some attitudinal barriers to occupational aspirations in women. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 809-816.
72.
Osipow, S.H., & Spokane, A.R. (1987). Manual for the Occupational Stress Inventory. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources .
73.
Padgitt, S.C., & Padgitt, J.S. (1986). Cognitive structure of sexual harassment: Implications for university policy. Journal of College and Student Personnel , 27, 34-39.
74.
Radecki, C., & Jennings, J. (1980). Sex as a status variable in work settings: Female and male reports of dominance behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 10, 71-85.
75.
Ragins, B.R., & Sundstrom, E. (1989). Gender and power in organizations: A longitudinal perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 51-88.
76.
Rounds, J.B., Henly, G.A., Dawis, R.V., Lofquist, L.H., & Weiss, D.J. (1981). Manual for the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire . Minneapolis: Vocational Psychology Research, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota.
77.
Scharf, R.S. (1997). Applying career development theory to counseling . Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole .
78.
Sekaran, U. (1986). Dual career families. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
79.
Sobol, M.G. (1963). Commitment to work. In F. I. Nye & L. W. Hoffman (Eds.), The employed mother in America (pp. 40-63). Chicago: Rand McNally.
80.
Swanson, J.L. (1994a). Occupational Stress Inventory (research version) . In R. C. Sweetland & D. J. Keyser (Eds.), Tests: A comprehensive reference for assessments in psychology, education, and business (p. 1038). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
81.
Swanson, J.L. (1994b). The Career Barriers Inventory (Short Form). Unpublished manuscript, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
82.
Swanson, J.L. (1996, August). How do women perceive career barriers? Theoretical and measurement issues. In V. S. Solberg & K. M. O'Brien (Chairs), Promoting Women's Career Development into the Next Millennium and Beyond. Symposium presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
83.
Swanson, J.L., & Daniels, K.K. (1995). The Career Barriers Inventory—Revised. Unpublished manuscript, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
84.
Swanson, J.L., Daniels, K.K., & Tokar, D.M. (1996). Assessing perceptions of career-related barriers: The Career Barriers Inventory. Journal of Career Assessment , 4(2), 219-244.
85.
Swanson, J.L., & Tokar, D.M. (1991a). College students' perceptions of barriers to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 38, 92-106.
86.
Swanson, J.L., & Tokar, D.M. (1991b). Development and initial validation of the Career Barriers Inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 39, 344-361.
87.
Swanson, J.L., & Woitke, M.B. (1997). Theory into practice in career assessment for women: Assessment and interventions regarding perceived barriers. Journal of Career Assessment, 5(4), 443-462.
88.
Tidball, M.E. (1980). Women's colleges and women achievers revisited . Signs, 5, 504-517.
89.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration. (1996). Statistical Abstracts of the U. S., National Data Book, p. 469.
Weishaar, M.E., Green, B.J., & Craighead, L.W. (1981). Primary influences of initial vocational choices for college women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 18, 67-78.
92.
Weiss, D.J., Dawis, R.V., England, G.W., & Lofquist, L.H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation, 22.
93.
Yang, J. (1991). Career counseling of Chinese American women: Are they in limbo? The Career Development Quarterly, 39(4), 350-359.
94.
Zunker, V.G., & Norris, D.S. (1998). Using assessment results for career development (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA : Brooks/Cole.
95.
Zytowski, D.G. (1988). Salience Inventory (SI) review. In J. T. Kapes & M. M. Mastie (Eds.), A counselor's guide to career assessment instruments (2nd ed., pp. 151-154). Alexandria, VA: National Career Development Association.