To help increase access to educational and occupational options for a growing yet underrepresented population of low-income, culturally diverse, urban middle school students, we need to increase our understanding of important factors in their career development. The results of this study supported some applications of Krumboltz’s social learning theory to at-risk urban youth and found (a) a significant and positive association between participants’ success learning experiences and their expressed occupational interests, and (b) a positive association between their career self-efficacy beliefs and inventoried occupational interests. However, no association was found between participants’ success learning experiences and their highest or most ideal occupational aspirations. Further research with methods and measures that are reliable and validated with this population is needed to replicate the results of this study. In turn, career counselors might use this understanding to better design effective interventions for at-risk diverse urban youth.
Arbona, C. (1996). Career theory and practice in a multicultural context. In M. L. Savickas & W. B. Walsh (Eds.), Handbook of career counseling theory and practice (pp. 45-54). Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.
2.
Armstrong, P. I., Hubert, L., & Rounds, J. (2003). Circular unidimensional scaling: A new look at group differences in interest structure. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 297-308.
3.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
4.
Betz, N. E. (2004). Contributions of self-efficacy theory to career counseling: A personal perspective. Career Development Quarterly, 52, 340-353.
5.
Betz, N. E., Borgen, F. H., & Harmon, L. W. (1996). Skills Confidence Inventory: Applications and technical guide. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
6.
Betz, N. E., Borgen, F. H., Kaplan, A., & Harmon, L. W. (1998). Gender and Holland type as moderators of the validity and interpretive utility of the Skills Confidence Inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 53, 281-299.
7.
Betz, N. E., & Gwilliam, L. R. (2002). The utility of measures of self-efficacy for the Holland themes in African American and European American college students. Journal of Career Assessment, 10, 283-300.
8.
Betz, N. E., & Hackett, G. (1981). The relationship of career-related self-efficacy expectations to perceived career options in college women and men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 399-410.
9.
Betz, N. E., Harmon, L. W., & Borgen, F. H. (1996). The relationships of self-efficacy for the Holland themes to gender, occupational group membership, and vocational interests. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 90-98.
10.
Blustein, D. L. (2001). Extending the reach of vocational psychology: Toward an inclusive and integrative psychology of working. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 171-182.
11.
Chartrand, J. M., & Rose, M. L. (1996). Career interventions for at-risk populations: Incorporating social cognitive influences. Career Development Quarterly, 44, 341-353.
12.
Chaves, A. P., Diemer, M. A., Blustein, D. L., Gallagher, L. A., Devoy, J. E., Casares, M. T., et al. (2004). Conceptions of work: The view from urban youth. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 275-286.
13.
Church, A. T., Rosebrook, R., & Szendre, D. (1992). Self-efficacy for careers and occupational consideration in minority high school equivalency students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, 498-508.
14.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
15.
Constantine, M. G., Erickson, C. D., Banks, R. W., & Timberlake, T. L. (1998). Challenges to the career development of urban racial and ethnic minority youth: Implications for vocational intervention. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 26, 82-95.
16.
Darcy, M., & Tracey, T. J. G. (2003). Integrating abilities and interests in career choice: Maximal versus typical assessment. Journal of Career Assessment, 11, 219-237.
17.
Davison Aviles, R. M., & Spokane, A. R. (1999). A comparison of the vocational interests of African American, Asian, Hispanic, and White middle school students. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 32, 138-148.
18.
Donnay, D. A. C., & Borgen, F. H. (1996). Validity, structure, and content of the 1994 Strong Interest Inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 275-291.
19.
Donnay, D. A. C., & Borgen, F. H. (1999). The incremental validity of vocational self-efficacy: An examination of interest, self-efficacy, and occupation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 432-447.
Flores, L. Y., & O’Brien, K. M. (2002). The career development of Mexican American adolescent women: A test of social cognitive theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 14-27.
22.
Fouad, N. A. (1995). Career linking: An intervention to promote math and science career awareness. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73, 527-534.
23.
Fouad, N. A. (2002). Cross-cultural differences in vocational interests: Between-group differences on the Strong Interest Inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 282-289.
24.
Fouad, N. A., Harmon, L. W., & Borgen, F. H. (1997). Structure of interests in employed male and female members of U.S. racial-ethnic minority and nonminority groups. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 339-345.
25.
Fouad, N. A., & Smith, P. L. (1996). A test of a social cognitive model for middle school students: Math and science. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 338-346.
26.
Gainor, K. A. (2001). Vocational assessment with culturally diverse populations. In L. A. Suzuki, J. G. Ponterotto, & P. J. Meller (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural assessment: Clinical, psychological, and educational applications (2nd ed., pp. 169-189). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
27.
Gainor, K. A., & Lent, R. W. (1998). Social cognitive expectations and racial identity attitudes in predicting the math choice intentions of Black college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 403-413.
28.
Gottfredson, G. D., & Holland, J. L. (1996). Dictionary of Holland occupational codes (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
29.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1996). Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise. In D. Brown, L. Brooks, & Associates (Eds.), Career choice and development (3rd ed., pp. 179-232). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
30.
Gottfredson, L. S., & Lapan, R. T. (1997). Assessing gender-based circumscription of occupational aspirations. Journal of Career Assessment, 5, 419-441.
31.
Haase, R. F., & Ellis, M. V. (1987). Multivariate analysis of variance. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 404-413.
32.
Hackett, G., Betz, N. E., Casas, J. M., & Rocha-Singh, I. A. (1992). Gender, ethnicity, and social cognitive factors predicting the academic achievement of students in engineering. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, 527-538.
33.
Harmon, L. W., Borgen, F. H., Berreth, J. M., King, J. C., Schauer, D., & Ward, C. C. (1996). The Skills Confidence Inventory: A measure of self-efficacy. Journal of Career Assessment, 4, 457-477.
34.
Harmon, L. W., Hansen, J. C., Borgen, F. H., & Hammer, A. L. (1994). Strong Interest Inventory: Applications and technical guide. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
35.
Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
36.
Holland, J. L., Powell, A. B., & Fritzsche, B. A. (1997). The Self-Directed Search (SDS) professional user’s guide, 1994 edition. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
37.
Iachan, R. (1984). A measure of agreement for use with the Holland classification system. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 24, 133-141.
38.
Jackson, M. A., & Nutini, C. D. (2002). Hidden resources and barriers in career learning assessment with adolescents vulnerable to discrimination. Career Development Quarterly, 51, 56-77.
39.
Kenny, M. E., Blustein, D. L., Chaves, A., Grossman, J. M., & Gallagher, L. A. (2003). The role of perceived barriers and relational support in the educational and vocational lives of urban high school students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 142-155.
40.
Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities: Children in America’s schools. New York: Crown.
41.
Krumboltz, J. D. (1979). A social learning theory of career decision making. In A. M. Mitchell, G. G. Jame, & J. D. Krumboltz (Eds.), Social learning and career decision making (pp. 19-49). Cranston, RI: Carrole Press.
42.
Krumboltz, J. D. (1994). Improving career development theory from a social learning theory perspective. In M. L. Savickas & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Convergence in career development theory (pp. 9-32). Palo Alto, CA: CPP Books.
43.
Krumboltz, J. D. (1996). A learning theory of career counseling. In M. L. Savickas & W. B. Walsh (Eds.), Integrating career theory and practice. Palo Alto, CA: CPP Books.
44.
Lapan, R. T., Adams, A., Turner, S., & Hinkelman, J. (2000). Seventh graders’ vocational interest and efficacy expectation patterns. Journal of Career Development, 26, 215-229.
45.
Lapan, R. T., Boggs, K. R., & Morrill, W. H. (1989). Self-efficacy as a mediator of investigative and realistic general occupational themes on the Strong Interest Inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 176-182.
46.
Lapan, R. T., Hinkelman, J., Adams, A., & Turner, S. (1999). Understanding rural adolescents’ interests, values, and efficacy expectations. Journal of Career Development, 26, 107-124.
47.
Lapan, R. T., & Jingeleski, J. (1992). Circumscribing vocational aspirations in junior high school. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, 81-90.
48.
Lattimore, R. R., & Borgen, F. H. (1999). Validity of the 1994 Strong Interest Inventory with racial and ethnic groups in the United States. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 185-195.
49.
Lee, R. M., & Dean, B. L. (2004). Middle-class mythology in an age of immigration and segmented assimilation: Implication for counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 19-24.
50.
Lenox, R. A., & Subich, L. M. (1994). The relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and inventoried vocational interests. Career Development Quarterly, 42, 302-313.
51.
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122.
52.
Lent, R. W., Larkin, K. C., & Brown, S. D. (1989). Relation of self-efficacy to inventoried vocational interests. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 34, 279-288.
53.
Lopez, F. G., Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A., Jr. (1997). Role of social-cognitive expectations in high school students’ mathematics-related interest and performance. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 44-52.
54.
Luzzo, D. A., Hasper, P., Albert, K. A., Bibby, M. A., & Martinelli, E. A. (1999). Effects of self-efficacy interventions on the math/science self-efficacy and career interest, goals, and actions of career undecided college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 233-243.
55.
McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview (Sage University Paper Series on Qualitative Research Methods, Vol. 13). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
56.
Nauta, M. M., Kahn, J. H., Angell, J. W., & Cantarelli, E. A. (2002). Identifying the antecedent in the relation between career interests and self-efficacy: Is it one, the other, or both?Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 290-301.
57.
Newman, K. S. (1996). Working poor: Low-wage employment in the lives of Harlem youth. In J. A. Grager & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Transitions through adolescence: Interpersonal domains and context (pp. 323-343). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
58.
O’Brien, V., Martinez-Pons, M., & Kopala, M. (1999). Mathematics self-efficacy, ethnic identity, gender, and career interests related to mathematics and science. Journal of Educational Research, 92, 231-325.
59.
Parsons, E., & Betz, N. E. (1998). Test-retest reliability and validity studies of the Skills Confidence Inventory. Journal of Career Assessment, 6, 1-12.
60.
Phillips, D. A., & Zimmerman, M. (1990). The developmental course of perceived competence and incompetence among competent children. In R. J. Sternberg & J. Kolligian, Jr. (Eds.), Competence considered (pp. 41-66). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
61.
Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 15, 1-12.
62.
Post-Kammer, P., & Smith, P. L. (1985). Sex differences in career self-efficacy, consideration, and interests in eighth and ninth graders. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32, 551-559.
63.
Prediger, D. J. (1999). Basic structure of work-relevant activities. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 173-184.
64.
Richardson, M. S. (1993). Work in people’s lives: A location for counseling psychologists. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40, 425-433.
65.
Roberts, L. R., & Petersen, A. C. (1992). The relationship between academic achievement and social image during early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 12, 197-219.
66.
Schmidt, D. B., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (1998). Validity of assessing educational-vocational preference dimensions among intellectually talented 13-year-olds. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 436-453.
67.
Silvia, P. J. (2001). Expressed and measured vocational interests: Distinctions and definitions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 382-393.
68.
Solberg, V. S., Howard, K., Blustein, D. L., & Close, W. (2002). Career development in the schools: Connecting school-to-work-to-life. The Counseling Psychologist, 30, 705-725.
69.
Spokane, A. R., & Decker, A. R. (1999). Expressed and measured interests. In M. L. Savickas (Ed.), Vocational interests: Meaning, measurement, and counseling use (pp. 211-233). Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.
70.
Subich, L. M., & Billingsley, K. D. (1995). Integrating career assessment into counseling. In W. B. Walsh & S. H. Osipow (Eds.), Handbook of vocational psychology: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed., pp. 261-293). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
71.
Tang, M. (2002). A comparison of Asian American, Caucasian American, and Chinese college students: An initial report. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 30, 124-134.
72.
Tang, M., Fouad, N. A., & Smith, P. L. (1999). Asian Americans’ career choices: A path model to examine factors influencing their career choices. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 142-157.
73.
Tracey, T. J. G. (1997). The structure of interests and self-efficacy estimations: An expanded examination of the spherical model of interests. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 32-43.
74.
Tracey, T. J. G. (2002). Development of interests and competency beliefs: A 1-year longitudinal study of fifth-to eighth-grade students using the ICA-R and structural equation modeling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 148-163.
75.
Tracey, T. J. G., & Ward, C. C. (1998). The structure of children’s interests and competence perceptions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 290-303.
76.
Turner, S. L., & Lapan, R. T. (2002). Career self-efficacy and perceptions of parent support in adolescent career development. Career Development Quarterly, 51, 44-55.
77.
Turner, S. L., & Lapan, R. T. (2003). The measurement of career interests among at-risk inner-city and middle-class suburban adolescents. Journal of Career Assessment, 11, 405-420.
78.
U. S. Department of Education. (1996). Urban schools: The challenge of location and poverty (NCES Publication No. 96-184r). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
79.
Watson, C. M., Quatman, T., & Edler, E. (2002). Career aspirations of adolescent girls: Effects of achievement level, grade, and single-sex school environment. Sex Roles, 46, 323-335.
80.
Wilson, W. J. (1996). When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. New York: Random House.
