The present study involved the development and psychometric evaluation of the Scale of Perceived Social Self-Efficacy (PSSE), a measure of self-efficacy expectations with respect to a range of social behaviors. A high degree of internal consistency reliability was found for the PSSE in a development sample of 354 undergraduate students (90 males and 264 females), with coefficient alpha = .94. Test-retest reliability over a 3-week interval was r = .82 (r = .86 for males and r = .80 for females). Data from correlational analyses supported the construct and discriminant validity of the scale in that social self-efficacy was strongly related to both Social Confidence and Enterprising Confidence (from the Skills Confidence Inventory) but was substantially unrelated to confidence in the other four (Holland) confidence scales. Social self-efficacy was also strongly related to shyness, which has been found to seriously hinder career development processes in young adults. Directions for further career research and assessment are discussed.
Alden, L. E., Teschuk, M. , & Tee, K. (1992 ). Public self-awareness and withdrawal from social interactions . Cognitive Therapy and Research, 3(16), 249-267.
2.
Arkin, R. M., Lake, E. A. , & Baumgardner, A. H. ( 1986). Shyness and self-presentation. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek , & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 189-203). New York: Plenum Press.
3.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
4.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
5.
Bandura, A., Pastorelli, C., Barbaranelli, C., & Caprara, G. U. (1999). Self-efficacy pathways to depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 258-269.
6.
Barak, A. (in press). A cognitive view of the nature of vocational interests: Implications for career assessment, counseling, and research. In F. T. L. Leong & A. Barak (Eds.), Contemporary models in vocational psychology: A volume in honor of Samuel H. Osipow. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
7.
Barak, A., Librowski, I. , & Shiloh, S. ( 1989 ). Cognitive determinants of interests. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 34, 318-334.
8.
Betz, N. E. (1999). Getting clients to act on their interests: Self-efficacy as a mediator of the implementation of vocational interests. In M. L. Savickas & A. R. Spokane (Eds.), Occupational interests: Their meaning, measurement, and use in counseling (pp. 327-344). Palo Alto, CA: Davies Black.
9.
Betz, N., Borgen, F., & Harmon, L. (1996). Manual for the Skills Confidence Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
10.
Betz, N. E., Harmon, L. W. , & Borgen, F. H. ( 1996). The relationships of self-efficacy for the Holland themes to gender, occupational group membership, and vocational interests . Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 90-98.
11.
Betz, N., & Luzzo, D. (1996). Career assessment and the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale. Journal of Career Assessment , 4, 313-328.
12.
Betz, N., Schifano, R., & Kaplan, A. (1999). Relationships among measures of perceived self-efficacy with respect to basic domains of vocational activity. Journal of Career Assessment , 7, 213-226.
13.
Blai, B. (1989). Health consequences of loneliness: A review of the literature. Journal of American College Health, 37, 162-167.
14.
Blustein, D. L., Walbridge, M. M., Friedlander, M. L., & Palladino, D. E. (1991). Contributions of psychological separation and parental attachment to the career development process. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 39-50.
15.
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
16.
Cheek, J. M. (1983). The revised Cheek and Buss shyness scale. Unpublished manuscript, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA.
17.
Cheek, J. M., & Buss, A. H. (1981). Shyness and sociability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 330-339.
18.
Connolly, J. (1989). Social self-efficacy in adolescence: Relations with self-concept, social adjustment and mental health. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 21, 258-269.
19.
Corey, G. (1995). Theory and practice of group counseling (4th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
20.
Curran, J. P. (1977). Skills training as an approach to the treatment of heterosexual - social anxiety . Psychological Bulletin, 84, 140-157.
21.
Felsman, D. E., & Blustein, D. L. (1999). The role of peer relatedness in late adolescent career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 279-295.
22.
Ferrari, J. R., & Parker, J. T. (1992). High school achievement, self-efficacy, and locus of control as predictors of freshman academic performance. Psychological Reports, 1, 515-518.
23.
Fichten, C. S., Bourdon, C. V., Amsel, R., & Fox, L. (1987). Validation of the college Interaction Self-Efficacy Questionnaire: Students with and without disabilities. Journal of College Student Personnel, 28, 449-458.
24.
Fleming, J. S., & Courtney, B. E. (1984). The dimensionality of self-esteem: Hierarchical facet model for revised measurement scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 404-421.
25.
Fouad, N., & Smith, P. L. (1996). Test of a social-cognitive model for middle school students: Math and science. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 338-346.
26.
Glass, G., & Hopkins, K. (1984). Statistical methods in education and psychology (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
27.
Hamer, R. J., & Bruch, M. A. (1997). Personality factors and inhibited career development: Testing the unique contribution of shyness. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 382-400.
28.
Harmon, L. W., Hansen, J. C., Borgen, F. H., & Hammer, A. L. (1994). Strong Interest Inventory: Applications and technical guide. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
29.
Holland, J. L. (1968). Exploration of a theory of vocational choice: VI. A longitudinal study using a sample of typical college students. Monograph Supplement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 52, No. 1, Part 2.
30.
Holland, J. L. (1973). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
31.
Holland, J. L. (1985). Professional manual for the Self-Directed Search. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
32.
Holland, J. S. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
33.
Krumboltz, J. D. (1988). Manual for the Career Beliefs Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
34.
Lapan, R. T., Boggs, K. R. , & Morrill, W. H. ( 1989). Self-efficacy as a mediator of Investigative and Realistic General Occupational Themes on the Strong Interest Inventory . Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 176-182.
35.
Lapan, R. T., Shaughnessy, P., & Boggs, K. ( 1996). Efficacy expectations and vocational interests as mediators between sex and choice of math/science college majors: A longitudinal study . Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 277-291.
36.
Leary, M. T. (1983). Social anxiousness: The construct and its measurement. Journal of Personality Assessment, 47, 66-75.
37.
Leary, M. (1991). Social anxiety, shyness, and related constructs. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. W. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (pp. 161-194). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
38.
Lenox, R., & Subich, L. (1994). The relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and inventoried vocational interests. Career Development Quarterly, 42, 302-313.
39.
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D. , & Gore, P. A., Jr. ( 1997). Discriminant and predictive validity of academic self-concept, academic self-efficacy, and mathematics-specific self-efficacy . Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 307-315.
40.
Lent, R. L., Brown, S. D. , & Hackett, G. ( 1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest choice and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122.
41.
Lent. R. W., Brown, S. D. , & Larkin, K. C. ( 1984). Relation of self-efficacy expectations to academic achievement and persistence. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 31, 356-362.
42.
Mahone, E. M., Bruch, M. A., & Heimberg, R. G. ( 1993). Focus of attention and social anxiety: The role of negative self-thoughts and perceived positive attributes of the other. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 17(3), 209-224.
43.
Niles, S. G., & Sowa, C. J. (1992). Mapping the nomological network of career self-efficacy. Career Development Quarterly, 41, 13-21.
44.
Nunnally, J., & Bernstein, I. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
45.
O'Brien, K. M. (1996). The influence of parental separation and parental attachment on the career development of adolescent women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 257-274.
46.
Osipow, S. H., & Temple, R. D. (1996). Development and use of the Task-Specific Occupational Self-Efficacy Scale. Journal of Career Assessment , 4, 445-456.
47.
Parsons, E., & Betz, N. (1998). Test-retest reliability and validity studies of the Skills Confidence Inventory. Journal of Career Assessment, 6, 1-12.
48.
Patterson, R. M., & O' Brien, K. M. (1997, August). An analysis of social self-efficacy in college students: A test of theory and implications for counseling. Paper presented at the 105th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago.
49.
Phillips, S. D., & Bruch, M. A. (1988). Shyness and dysfunction in career development. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 159-165.
50.
Riggio, R. E. (1989). Manual for the Social Skills Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
51.
Rooney, R. A., & Osipow, S. H. (1992). Task-Specific Occupational Self-Efficacy Scale: The development and validation of a prototype. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 40, 14-32.
52.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
53.
Rotenberg, K. M., & Morrison, J. (1993). Loneliness and college achievement: Do loneliness scale scores predict college drop-out? Psychological Reports, 73, 1283-1288.
54.
Sherer, M., & Adams, C. (1983). Construct validation of the Self-Efficacy Scale. Psychological Reports, 53, 899-902.
55.
Sherer, M., Maddux, J. E. , Mercadante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. W. ( 1982). The Self-Efficacy Scale: Construction and validation . Psychological Reports, 51, 663-671.
56.
Solberg, V. S., Good, G. E., Nord, D., Holm, C., Hohner, R., Zima, N., Heffernan, M., & Malen, A. (1994). Assessing career search expectations: Development and validation of the Career Search Efficacy Scale. Journal of Career Assessment , 2, 111-124.
57.
Spector, P. E. (1992). Summated rating scale construction. New York: Appleton Century Crofts.
58.
Temple, R. D., & Osipow, S. H. (1994). The relationship between task-specific self-efficacy, egalitarianism, and career indecision for females. Journal of Career Assessment, 2, 448-455.
59.
Tuck, B., Rolfe, J., & Adair, U. (1995). Career indecision and self-efficacy among adolescents. Australian Journal of Career Development, 4, 60-63.
60.
Zimbardo, P. G. (1977). Shyness: What it is; what to do about it. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
