Not All Wrongdoers Are Equal in the Public Eye: A Moderated Mediation Model of Country Stereotypes,Condemning Emotions,and Retaliatory Intent in Corporate Crises
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online June, 2021
Not All Wrongdoers Are Equal in the Public Eye: A Moderated Mediation Model of Country Stereotypes,Condemning Emotions,and Retaliatory Intent in Corporate Crises
Corporate crises generate condemning emotions and retaliatory intent toward the offending companies. However, not all wrongdoers are equal in the public eye. Consumers’ prior beliefs about a company’s country of origin may bias these responses. In three experimental studies (combined N = 1,008), the authors (1) establish that country stereotypes of warmth—but not of competence—can buffer condemning emotions and retaliatory intent toward an offending company. They further (2) reveal the psychological mechanism of greed attributions that underlies this bias and (3) identify the type of crisis as a crucial contingency factor that facilitates (corporate ability crisis) or suppresses (corporate value crisis) the buffering effect of country warmth.
AakerJenniferVohsKathleen D.MogilnerCassie (2010), “Nonprofits Are Seen as Warm and For-Profits as Competent: Firm Stereotypes Matter,” Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (2), 224–37.
2.
AllmanHelena F.FenikAnton P.HewettKellyMorganFelicia N. (2015), “Brand Image Evaluations: The Interactive Role of Country of Manufacture, Brand Concept, and Vertical Line Extension Type,” Journal of International Marketing, 24 (2), 40–61.
3.
AndersonJames C.GerbingDavid W. (1988), “Structural Equation Modeling in Practice: A Review and Recommended Two-Step Approach,” Psychological Bulletin, 103 (3), 411–23.
4.
AntonettiPaoloMaklanStan (2016), “Social Identification and Corporate Irresponsibility: A Model of Stakeholder Punitive Intentions,” British Journal of Management, 27 (3), 583–605.
5.
AvrahamEli (2020), “National Branding and Marketing Strategies for Combatting Tourism Crises and Stereotype Towards Destinations,” Journal of Business Research, 116, 711–720.
6.
BagozziRichard P.YiYoujae (1988), “On the Evaluation of Structural Equation Models,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16 (1), 74–94.
7.
BarbarossaCamillaPelsmackerPatrick DeMoonsIngrid (2018), “Effects of Country-of-Origin Stereotypes on Consumer Responses to Product-Harm Crises,” International Marketing Review, 35 (3), 362–89.
8.
BartschFabianRieflerPetraDiamantopoulosAdamantios (2016), “A Taxonomy and Review of Positive Consumer Dispositions Toward Foreign Countries and Globalization,” Journal of International Marketing, 24 (1), 82–110.
BechwatiNada N.MorrinMaureen (2003), “Outraged Consumers: Getting Even at the Expense of Getting a Good Deal,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13 (4), 440–53.
11.
BrownTom J.DacinPeter A. (1997), “The Company and the Product: Corporate Associations and Consumer Product Responses,” Journal of Marketing, 61 (1), 68–84.
12.
ChattalasMichaelKramerThomasTakadaHirokazu (2008), “The Impact of National Stereotypes on the Country of Origin Effect,” International Marketing Review, 25 (1), 54–74.
13.
ChenCathy Y.MathurPragyaMaheswaranDurairaj (2014), “The Effects of Country-Related Affect on Product Evaluations,” Journal of Consumer Research, 41 (4), 1033–46.
14.
ChoiJungsilChangYoung KyunLiYexin JessicaJangMyoung Gyun (2016), “Doing Good in Another Neighborhood: Attributions of CSR Motivations Depend on Corporate Nationality and Cultural Orientation,” Journal of International Marketing, 24 (4), 82–102.
15.
ChoiYoonhyeungLinYing-Hsuan (2009), “Consumer Response to Crisis: Exploring the Concept of Involvement in Mattel Product Recalls,” Public Relations Review, 35 (1), 18–22.
16.
CleerenKathleenDekimpeMarnik G.HeerdeHarald J. van (2017), “Marketing Research on Product-Harm Crises: A Review, Managerial Implications, and an Agenda for Future Research,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 45 (5), 593–615.
17.
ClevelandMarkLarocheMichelPapadopoulosNicolas G. (2009), “Cosmopolitanism, Consumer Ethnocentrism, and Materialism: An Eight-Country Study of Antecedents and Outcomes,” Journal of International Marketing, 17 (1), 116–46.
18.
CoombsW. Timothy (2017), “Revisiting Situational Crisis Communication Theory,” in Social Media and Crisis Communication, AustinLucinda L.JinYan, eds. New York: Routledge, 21–37.
19.
CrossleyCraig D. (2009), “Emotional and Behavioral Reactions to Social Undermining: A Closer Look at Perceived Offender Motives,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108 (1), 14–24.
20.
CuddyAmy J.FiskeSusan T.GlickPeter (2008), “Warmth and Competence as Universal Dimensions of Social Perception: The Stereotype Content Model and the BIAS Map,” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 61–149.
21.
DavidPrabuKlineSusanDaiYang (2005), “Corporate Social Responsibility Practices, Corporate Identity, and Purchase Intention: A Dual-Process Model,” Journal of Public Relations Research, 17 (3), 291–313.
22.
DavvetasVasileiosDiamantopoulosAdamantiosLiuLucy (2020), “Lit Up or Dimmed Down? Why, When, and How Regret Anticipation Affects Consumers’ Use of the Global Brand Halo,” Journal of International Marketing, 28 (3), 40–63.
23.
DavvetasVasileiosHalkiasGeorgios (2019), “Global and Local Brand Stereotypes: Formation, Content Transfer, and Impact,” International Marketing Review, 36 (5), 675–701.
24.
DawarNirajPillutlaMadan M. (2000), “Impact of Product-Harm Crises on Brand Equity: The Moderating Role of Consumer Expectations,” Journal of Marketing Research, 37 (2), 215–26.
25.
DiamantopoulosAdamantiosDavvetasVasileiosBartschFabianMandlerTimoArslanagic-KalajdzicMajaEisendMartin (2019), “On the Interplay Between Consumer Dispositions and Perceived Brand Globalness: Alternative Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Assessment,” Journal of International Marketing, 27 (4), 39–57.
26.
DiamantopoulosAdamantiosFlorackArndtHalkiasGeorgiosPalcuJohanna (2017), “Explicit Versus Implicit Country Stereotypes as Predictors of Product Preferences: Insights from the Stereotype Content Model,” Journal of International Business Studies, 48 (8), 1023–36.
FestingerLeon (1957), A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson, & Co.
29.
FiskeSusan T. (2018), “Stereotype Content: Warmth and Competence Endure,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27 (2), 67–73.
30.
FiskeSusan T.CuddyAmy J.GlickPeterJunXu (2002), “A Model of (Often Mixed) Stereotype Content: Competence and Warmth Respectively Follow from Perceived Status and Competition,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82 (6), 878–902.
31.
FombrunCharlesRielCees Van (1997), “The Reputational Landscape,” Corporate Reputation Review, 1 (1/2), 5–13.
32.
FordJohn B.LaTourMichael S.VitellScott J.FrenchWarren A. (1997), “Moral Judgment and Market Negotiations: A Comparison of Chinese and American Managers,” Journal of International Marketing, 5 (2), 57–76.
33.
FornellClaesLarckerDavid F. (1981), “Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error,” Journal of Marketing Research, 18 (1), 39–50.
34.
GaoHongzhiZhangHongxiaZhangXuanKnightJohn G. (2015), “Spillover of Distrust from Domestic to Imported Brands in a Crisis-Sensitized Market,” Journal of International Marketing, 23 (1), 91–112.
35.
GilbertDaniel T.MalonePatrick S. (1995), “The Correspondence Bias,” Psychological Bulletin, 117 (1), 21–38.
36.
GrappiSilviaRomaniSimonaBagozziRichard P. (2013a), “Consumer Response to Corporate Irresponsible Behavior: Moral Emotions and Virtues,” Journal of Business Research, 66 (10), 1814–21.
37.
GrappiSilviaRomaniSimonaBagozziRichard P. (2013b), “The Effects of Company Offshoring Strategies on Consumer Responses,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 41 (6), 683–704.
38.
GrégoireYanyLauferDanielTrippThomas M. (2010), “A Comprehensive Model of Customer Direct and Indirect Revenge: Understanding the Effects of Perceived Greed and Customer Power,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38 (6), 738–58.
39.
HaidtJonathan (2003), “The Moral Emotions,” in Handbook of Affective Sciences, DavidsonRichard J.SchererKlaus R.Hill GoldsmithH., eds. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 852–70.
40.
HalkiasGeorgiosDavvetasVasileiosDiamantopoulosAdamantios (2016), “The Interplay Between Country Stereotypes and Perceived Brand Globalness/Localness as Drivers of Brand Preference,” Journal of Business Research, 69 (9), 3621–28.
41.
HalkiasGeorgiosDiamantopoulosAdamantios (2020), “Universal Dimensions of Individuals’ Perception: Revisiting the Operationalization of Warmth and Competence with a Mixed-Method Approach,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 37 (4), 714–36.
42.
HarmelingColleen M.MagnussonPeterSinghNitish (2015), “Beyond Anger: A Deeper Look at Consumer Animosity,” Journal of International Business Studies, 46 (6), 676–93.
43.
HayesAndrew F. (2017), Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. New York: Guilford Press.
44.
HerzMarc F.DiamantopoulosAdamantios (2013), “Activation of Country Stereotypes: Automaticity, Consonance, and Impact,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 41 (4), 400–17.
45.
HerzMarc F.DiamantopoulosAdamantios (2017), “I Use It but Will Tell You That I Don’t: Consumers’ Country-of-Origin Cue Usage Denial,” Journal of International Marketing, 25 (2), 52–71.
46.
HutchersonCendri A.GrossJames J. (2011), “The Moral Emotions: A Social-Functionalist Account of Anger, Disgust, and Contempt,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100 (4), 719–37.
47.
JarvisCheryl B.MacKenzieScott B.PodsakoffPhilip M. (2003), “A Critical Review of Construct Indicators and Measurement Model Misspecification in Marketing and Consumer Research,” Journal of Consumer Research, 30 (2), 199–218.
48.
JoiremanJeffreyGrégoireYanyDevezerBernaTrippThomas (2013), “When Do Customers Offer Firms a ‘Second Chance’ Following a Double Deviation? The Impact of Inferred Firm Motives on Customer Revenge and Reconciliation,” Journal of Retailing, 89 (3), 315–37.
49.
KervynNicolasFiskeSusan T.MaloneChris (2012), “Brands as Intentional Agents Framework: How Perceived Intentions and Ability Can Map Brand Perception,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22 (2), 166–76.
50.
KimSojungChoiSejung M. (2018), “Congruence Effects in Post-Crisis CSR Communication: The Mediating Role of Attribution of Corporate Motives,” Journal of Business Ethics, 153 (2), 447–63.
51.
KimYoojungChoiSejung M. (2019), “When Good Becomes Bad: The Role of Corporate Crisis and Issue Congruence,” International Journal of Advertising, 39 (4), 571–86.
52.
KirmaniAmnaHamiltonRebecca W.ThompsonDebora V.LantzyShannon (2017), “Doing Well Versus Doing Good: The Differential Effect of Underdog Positioning on Moral and Competent Service Providers,” Journal of Marketing, 81 (1), 103–17.
53.
KleinJill G.DawarNiraj (2004), “Corporate Social Responsibility and Consumers’ Attributions and Brand Evaluations in a Product-Harm Crisis,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 21 (3), 203–17.
54.
KleinJill G.Craig SmithN.JohnAndrew (2004), “Why We Boycott: Consumer Motivations for Boycott Participation,” Journal of Marketing, 68 (3), 92–109.
55.
KockFlorianJosiassenAlexanderGeorge AssafA. (2019), “Toward a Universal Account of Country-Induced Predispositions: Integrative Framework and Measurement of Country-of-Origin Images and Country Emotions,” Journal of International Marketing, 27 (3), 43–59.
56.
KolblŽivaArslanagic-KalajdzicMajaDiamantopoulosAdamantios (2019), “Stereotyping Global Brands: Is Warmth More Important Than Competence?” Journal of Business Research, 104, 614–21.
57.
KoufterosXenophonBabbarSunilKaighobadiMehdi (2009), “A Paradigm for Examining Second-Order Factor Models Employing Structural Equation Modeling,” International Journal of Production Economics, 120 (2), 633–52.
58.
KüblerRaoul V.LangmaackMichaelAlbersSönkeHoyerWayne D. (2020), “The Impact of Value-Related Crises on Price and Product-Performance Elasticities,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 48, 776–94.
59.
LangeDonaldWashburnNathan T. (2012), “Understanding Attributions of Corporate Social Irresponsibility,” Academy of Management Review, 37 (2), 300–26.
60.
LauferDanielGillespieKateSilveraDavid H. (2009), “The Role of Country of Manufacture in Consumers’ Attributions of Blame in an Ambiguous Product-Harm Crisis,” Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 21 (3), 189–201.
61.
LazarusRichard S. (1991), Emotion and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.
62.
LindellMichael K.WhitneyDavid J. (2001), “Accounting for Common Method Variance in Cross-Sectional Research Design,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 86 (1), 114–21.
63.
MacKenzieScott B.PodsakoffPhilip M.PodsakoffNathan P. (2011), “Construct Measurement and Validation Procedures in MIS and Behavioral Research: Integrating New and Existing Techniques,” MIS Quarterly, 35 (2), 293–334.
64.
MagnussonPeterWestjohnStanford A.SirianniNancy J. (2019), “Beyond Country Image Favorability: How Brand Positioning via Country Personality Stereotypes Enhances Brand Evaluations,” Journal of International Business Studies, 50 (3), 318–38.
65.
MagnussonPeterWestjohnStanford A.ZdravkovicSrdan (2015), “An Examination of the Interplay Between Corporate Social Responsibility, the Brand’s Home Country, and Consumer Global Identification,” International Marketing Review, 32 (6), 663–85.
66.
MaherAmro A.CarterLarry L. (2011), “The Affective and Cognitive Components of Country Image: Perceptions of American Products in Kuwait,” International Marketing Review, 28 (6), 559–80.
67.
MandlerTimoBartschFabianMin HanC. (2020), “Brand Credibility and Marketplace Globalization: The Role of Perceived Brand Globalness and Localness,” Journal of International Business Studies(published online April 9), DOI:10.1057/s41267-020-00312-2.
68.
McGartyCraigYzerbytVincent Y.SpearsRussell (2002), “Social, Cultural, and Cognitive Factors in Stereotype Formation,” in Stereotypes as Explanations: The Formation of Meaningful Beliefs About Social Groups, McGartyCraigYzerbytVincent Y.SpearsRussell, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1–15.
69.
MicevskiMilenaDiamantopoulosAdamantiosErdbrüggerJennifer (2020), “From Country Stereotypes to Country Emotions to Intentions to Visit a Country: Implications for a Country as a Destination Brand,” Journal of Product & Brand Management, 30 (1), 118–31.
NisbettRichard E.WilsonTimothy. D. (1977), “The Halo Effect: Evidence for Unconscious Alteration of Judgments,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35 (4), 250–56.
72.
NunnallyJum C. (1978), Psychometric Theory (2nd ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
73.
NyerPrashanth U. (2000), “An Investigation into Whether Complaining Can Cause Increased Consumer Satisfaction,” Journal of Consumer Marketing, 17 (1), 9–19.
74.
ObereckerEva M.RieflerPetraDiamantopoulosAdamantios (2008), “The Consumer Affinity Construct: Conceptualization, Qualitative Investigation, and Research Agenda,” Journal of International Marketing, 16 (3), 23–56.
75.
PelozaJohnYeChristineMontfordWilliam J. (2015), “When Companies Do Good, Are Their Products Good for You? How Corporate Social Responsibility Creates a Health Halo,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 34 (1), 19–31.
76.
PovinelliDaniel J. (2001), “On the Possibilities of Detecting Intentions Prior to Understanding Them,” in Intentionality: A Key to Human Understanding, MalleBertramBaldwinDareMosesLouis J., eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 225–48.
77.
ReederGlenn D.KumarShamalaHesson-McInnisMatthew S.TrafimowDavid (2002), “Inferences About the Morality of an Aggressor: The Role of Perceived Motive,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83 (4), 789–803.
78.
RomaniSimonaGrappiSilviaDalliDaniele (2012), “Emotions That Drive Consumers Away from Brands: Measuring Negative Emotions Toward Brands and Their Behavioral Effects,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 29 (1), 55–67.
79.
RozinPaulLoweryLauraImadaSumioHaidtJonathan (1999), “The CAD Triad Hypothesis: A Mapping Between Three Moral Emotions (Contempt, Anger, Disgust) and Three Moral Codes (Community, Autonomy, Divinity),” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76 (4), 574–86.
80.
SchoeferKlausEnnewChristine T. (2005), “The Impact of Perceived Justice on Consumers’ Emotional Responses to Service Complaint Experiences,” Journal of Services Marketing, 19 (5), 261–70.
81.
ShaverPhillipSchwartzJudithKirsonDonaldConnorCary O’ (1987), “Emotion Knowledge: Further Exploration of a Prototype Approach,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 (6), 1061–86.
82.
SinghJatlinder J.VitellScott J.Al-KhatibJamalClarkIrvineIII (2007), “The Role of Moral Intensity and Personal Moral Philosophies in the Ethical Decision Making of Marketers: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of China and the United States,” Journal of International Marketing, 15 (2), 86–112.
83.
SkarmeasDionysisLeonidouConstantinos N. (2013), “When Consumers Doubt, Watch Out! The Role of CSR Skepticism,” Journal of Business Research, 66 (10), 1831–38.
84.
SkowronskiJohn J.CarlstonDonal E. (1987), “Social Judgment and Social Memory: The Role of Cue Diagnosticity in Negativity, Positivity, and Extremity Biases,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 (4), 689–99.
85.
SohnY. J.LariscyRuthann W. (2015), “A ‘Buffer’ or ‘Boomerang’? The Role of Corporate Reputation in Bad Times,” Communication Research, 42 (2), 237–59.
86.
StäblerSamuelFischerMarc (2020), “When Does Corporate Social Irresponsibility Become News? Evidence from More Than 1,000 Brand Transgressions Across Five Countries,” Journal of Marketing, 84 (3), 46–67.
SweetinVernon H.KnowlesLynette L.SummeyJohn H.McQueenKand S. (2013), “Willingness-to-Punish the Corporate Brand for Corporate Social Irresponsibility,” Journal of Business Research, 66 (10), 1822–30.
TranThi Tranh HuongPaparoidamisNicholas G. (2020), “Eco-Innovations in Global Markets: The Effect of Ecological (In)Congruence on Consumers’ Adoption Intentions,” Journal of International Marketing, 28 (3), 64–83.
91.
VoorheesClay M.BradyMichael K.CalantoneRogerRamirezEdward (2016), “Discriminant Validity Testing in Marketing: An Analysis, Causes for Concern, and Proposed Remedies,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44 (1), 119–34.
92.
WangCheng LuLiDongjinBarnesBradley R.AhnJongseok (2012), “Country Image, Product Image and Consumer Purchase Intention: Evidence from an Emerging Economy,” International Business Review, 21 (6), 1041–51.
93.
WojciszkeBogdan (1994), “Multiple Meanings of Behavior: Construing Actions in Terms of Competence or Morality,” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 67 (2), 222–31.
94.
WojciszkeBogdan (2005), “Affective Concomitants of Information on Morality and Competence,” European Psychologist, 10 (1), 60–70.
95.
XieChunyanBagozziRichard P. (2014), “The Role of Moral Emotions and Consumer Values and Traits in the Decision to Support Nonprofits,” Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 26 (4), 290–311.
96.
XieChunyanBagozziRichard P. (2019), “Consumer Responses to Corporate Social Irresponsibility: The Role of Moral Emotions, Evaluations, and Social Cognitions,” Psychology & Marketing, 36 (6), 565–86.
97.
XieChunyanBagozziRichard P.GrønhaugKjell (2015), “The Role of Moral Emotions and Individual Differences in Consumer Responses to Corporate Green and Non-Green Actions,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43 (3), 333–56.
98.
XuHuiminLeungAdaYanRuoh-Nan T. (2013), “It Is Nice to Be Important, but It Is More Important to Be Nice: Country-of-Origin’s Perceived Warmth in Product Failures,” Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 12 (4), 285–92.
99.
YoonYeosunGürhan-CanliZeynepBozokBeyza (2006), “Drawing Inferences About Others on the Basis of Corporate Associations,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34 (2), 167–73.
100.
YoonYeosunGürhan-CanliZeynepSchwarzNorbert (2006), “The Effect of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Activities on Companies with Bad Reputations,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16 (4), 377–90.
101.
ZawiszaMagdalenaPittardChelsea (2015), “When Do Warmth and Competence Sell Best? The ‘Golden Quadrant’ Shifts as a Function of Congruity with the Product Type, Targets’ Individual Differences, and Advertising Appeal Type,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 37 (2), 131–41.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
