Parental Workplace Bullying,Parenting Management Strategies,and Children's Peer Victimization

Abstract

The present study examined the role of workplace bullying in the relationship between parenting strategies (e.g., guiding and consulting) and children's peer victimization. In light of parents’ key role in children's peer socialization and parent-to-child spillover, we examined three hypotheses: children of parents who have experienced workplace victimization will report higher levels of victimization than children of parents who have not experienced workplace bullying; higher levels of parental guiding and consulting behaviors will be associated with lower levels of child victimization; and parents’ experiences of workplace bullying would moderate the association between parental guiding/consulting behaviors and child victimization. Findings indicated that children of parents who have experienced workplace bullying reported higher levels of peer victimization. Further, higher levels of guiding, but not consulting, were associated with lower levels of child peer victimization. Finally, parents’ experiences of workplace bullying moderated the association between guiding and child peer victimization, but not the association between consulting and child peer victimization. Implications for parenting strategies, spillover, and workplace dynamics are discussed.

Keywords

Workplace victimization peer victimization parenting strategies guiding consulting

Parents play a key role in children's peer socialization. Burgeoning research highlights the effects of parenting practices on children's peer relationships, victimization experiences, and psychological adjustment (Gerardy et al., 2015; Karga et al., 2021; Mounts, 2002; Salaam et al., 2022). As children and adolescents navigate social challenges (e.g., victimization, bullying, and ostracism), active parental support and management are key factors that influence adaptive psychological adjustment and promote resilience (Benatov, 2019; Tu et al., 2021). However, negative social experiences, like workplace bullying, can have profound effects on familial dynamics, parenting practices, and even children's peer relationships (Jie et al., 2024). The present research examines the associations between parents’ experiences of bullying in the workplace, parenting management strategies (e.g., guiding and consulting), and children's peer victimization.

Workplace Victimization and Familial Spillover

Workplace bullying occurs when an individual is victimized by another organizational peer or superior (Nielsen & Einarsen, 2012). Victims of workplace bullying are subject to persistent negative behavior, like social exclusion, ostracism, abuse of supervision, rumors, and physical intimidation (Harvey et al., 2019; Lo Presti et al., 2019; Nielsen & Einarsen, 2012). Research has shown the deleterious effects of workplace bullying on victims’ mental and physical health outcomes, like anxiety, depression, insomnia, burnout, and reduced job satisfaction (Lo Presti et al., 2019; Nielsen & Einarsen, 2012; Rodríguez-Muñoz et al., 2025). Workplace ostracism, which is a common form of workplace bullying, is related to a host of job performance and wellbeing outcomes (Howard et al., 2020). In particular, ostracism is related to employee silence (e.g., lack of self-advocacy), deviance (e.g., lashing out), and fewer helping behaviors (Howard et al., 2020). Adverse mental health outcomes associated with workplace ostracism outcomes include emotional exhaustion, lack of belongingness, and negative self-perception (Howard et al., 2020; Lo Presti et al., 2019).

Recent research has highlighted spillover effects of workplace victimization. In particular, workplace bullying can affect victims’ family dynamics (Duffy & Sperry, 2007; Jahng, 2020; Jie et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2013; Pluut et al., 2022; Rodríguez-Muñoz et al., 2025; Sarwar et al., 2021). Workplace bullying may trigger negative emotions, which can be related to family incivility or tension (e.g., behaviors that disrupt a familial sense of respect; Sarwar et al., 2021). Partners of victims of workplace bullying report more withdrawn, aggressive, and social undermining behaviors from their partners (Pluut et al., 2022; Rodríguez-Muñoz et al., 2022). The psychological consequences (e.g., depression and burnout) of workplace bullying may affect parents’ perception of their parenting practices, in that parenting is viewed as “just more work” (Jahng, 2020, p. 324). Such perceptions may put children at an increased risk of being socially and emotionally deprived (Jahng, 2020). Social and emotional deprivation may manifest as a lack of responsive, nurturing, and supportive interactions between parents and children, which elevates risk of spillover and psychological trauma (Jahng, 2020). Workplace victimization and familial spillover hold implications for parenting practices and children's social and emotional development.

Effects of Parent's Experiences of Victimization on Children

Parents’ experiences of victimization can have significant effects on children's adjustment. Children of parents who had been victims of community violence exhibit elevated levels of anxiety, depression, and impulsivity (Dulmus & Wodarski, 2000). Further, parents who were victims of childhood bullying are more likely to adopt authoritarian (e.g., rigid and inflexible) or permissive parenting styles (e.g., lenient and indulgent; Wright, 2017). In turn, these parenting styles are associated with elevated levels of depression and anxiety in children (Wright, 2017).

Although some studies have found negative outcomes associated with parents’ childhood victimization, research has also shown that parents’ experiences of victimization may serve as a protective factor for children's adjustment. Putallaz et al. (1991) found that mothers’ anxious or lonely experiences in childhood were associated with proactivity in children's social development. Because of their personal experiences, victimized parents may be more psychologically equipped to guide children in their own relationships (Putallaz et al., 1991). Further, parents’ experiences of victimization can predict the likelihood of preventative and restorative action (Cooper & Nickerson, 2013). Parents who experienced or witnessed bullying were more likely to encourage their children to seek help from trusted adults and intervene in their children's experience of victimization (Cooper & Nickerson, 2013).

Parental Role in Children's Peer Relationships

Parents play a key role in children's experiences of peer victimization. Parents’ behaviors, attitudes, and relationship quality may exacerbate or mitigate their children's victimization risk. For example, corporal punishment is associated with children's experiences of victimization (Martin et al., 2021). When children are subjected to physical punishment, they are more likely to engage in aggressive behaviors within peer relationships, which can elevate risk for victimization (Martin et al., 2021). Parental rejection, low parental warmth, and intrusive parenting are also associated with greater peer victimization in children (Kaufman et al., 2020; Ladd & Kochenderfer Ladd, 1998). However, children who experience parental warmth and support are at less risk of peer victimization (Shin et al., 2016). Parental warmth is associated with children's development of social skills and self-esteem, which decreases the risk of victimization (Shin et al., 2016).

Parental guidance, intervention, and suggested coping strategies impact children's experiences of peer victimization (Boddy et al., 2024; Erath et al., 2021; Kustanti et al., 2024). Parents may take more direct approaches by intervening in the challenging peer situation or expressly guiding children on coping measures (Erath et al., 2021). Parents’ suggested strategies may include telling a trusted adult, ignoring the bullying, or standing up to the perpetrator (Boddy et al., 2024). Parents may also take a more indirect approach by encouraging positive self-evaluation (e.g., maintaining a favorable view of themselves) and social interactions (e.g., surrounding themselves with positive peers; Erath et al., 2021).

In sum, parents appear to have a considerable effect on children's experiences of peer victimization through their behaviors, support, and involvement. Understanding the dynamic of parental management on peer relationships is essential for developing effective parenting strategies to address victimization in children.

Parental Management of Peer Relationships

Parents manage children's peer relationships through various strategies (i.e., consulting, guiding, neutrality, prohibiting, and supporting; Mounts, 2002). Consulting and guiding are of particular focus to the current study because of their impact on children's peer relationships (Low & Mounts, 2022; Mounts, 2011). Consulting often occurs as parental advice to children about peer relationships, whereas guiding refers to parents’ regulatory actions upon their children's peer relationships (Mounts, 2011). Parents and children may consult in preparation for peer relationships or in response to a difficult or ambiguous situation. Parents may guide by influencing their children's decision to pursue or avoid friendships. Both consulting and guiding practices hold implications for children's adjustment and peer relationships.

Evidence suggests that parents’ active consultation in their children's relationships can promote social skills, such as cooperation and empathy (Mounts, 2011). McDowell and Parke (2009) found that parental advice, a form of consultation, predicted children's social competence (e.g., understanding and engaging in social skills), which predicted peer social acceptance. Further, Tu et al. (2017) found that parental social coaching, another form of consultation, predicted greater friendship quality for youth with lower peer acceptance. Higher levels of consulting predict lower levels of victimization in adolescents (Low & Mounts, 2022).

Parental guiding is also related to a host of outcomes for peer relationships. Guiding is related to social inclusion (e.g., a child is included in various friendships and groups) and increased prosocial behavior (Gerardy et al., 2015; Salaam et al., 2022). However, guiding is also implicated in relational aggression between peers (Gerardy et al., 2015). Because of these mixed findings, there is a gap in the research literature, such that a full conceptualization of the effects of parental management on children's peer relationships and victimization is missing.

Current Study

The current study synthesizes emerging research on workplace victimization, familial spillover, parental guiding practices, and children's adjustment and peer relationships. Workplace victimization has deleterious effects on physical and mental health outcomes of parents, which may spill over into family dynamics (Jahng, 2020; Pluut et al., 2022). The current study examines the potential spillover relationship of parents’ workplace victimization with children's peer relationships. First, we hypothesized that children of parents who have experienced workplace victimization will report higher levels of victimization than children of parents who have not experienced workplace bullying (H1). Research has shown an intergenerational link between parents’ and children's bullying histories (Allison et al., 2014). Parental victimization has been associated with an increased risk of victimization in children (Allison et al., 2014). In light of the spillover framework and the effects of parent victimization on children's adjustment, children of victimized parents may be at higher risk for victimization.

Second, we hypothesized that higher levels of parental guiding and consulting behaviors will be associated with lower levels of child victimization (H2). Guiding and consulting are often associated with lower levels of victimization and positive outcomes for children's peer relationships (e.g., social inclusion and prosocial behavior; Gerardy et al., 2015; Low & Mounts, 2022; Salaam et al., 2022).

Third, we hypothesized that parents’ experiences of workplace bullying would moderate the relationship between parental guiding/consulting behaviors and child victimization (H3). Specifically, we hypothesized that the relationship between guiding/consulting behaviors and child victimization will be stronger when parents have experienced workplace bullying than when they have not. While workplace victimization can have detrimental spillover effects into the family dynamic, the adverse experience of being bullied may psychologically equip parents to engage in guiding practices to manage their children's relationships. Research has shown that parents’ past bullying experiences affect parents’ attitudes and recommended strategies when children are victimized (Boddy et al., 2024; Lightner et al., 2000). Parents’ experiences of victimization may prepare parents to engage in guiding practices that can positively affect children's peer relationships (Boddy et al., 2024; Lightner et al., 2000). Such research has the potential to inform counseling families from a family systems perspective to best assist parents and children who have experienced victimization (deLara, 2019).

Methods

Participants

The current study was composed of 181 parent–child dyads in the United States. Parent participants (M_age= 40.98 years) were majority women (92.0%). Parent–child dyads were recruited in the transition period between fifth and sixth grade. Among the children, 51.7% identified as girls. Child participants identified as White (71.1%), Black or African-American (16.7%), Asian (4.4%), or American Indian or Alaska Native or Other (7.8%). Parent participants identified as White (74.4%), Black or African-American (13.3%), Asian (5.0%), or American Indian or Alaska Native or Other (7.3%). Table 1 includes detailed characteristics of the sample.

Table 1.
Participant Demographics (n = 181)^a and Descriptive Statistics.

Characteristic Mean or N SD or %

Analysis variables

Victimization 6.66 6.50

Guiding behavior 2.77 0.34

Consulting behavior 3.44 0.33

Ever bullied in workplace 67 37.00

Parent age 40.98 6.98

Parent years of education 14.64 5.50

Parent marital status

Married or remarried 132 74.20

Divorced 15 8.30

Never married 15 8.40

Other 16 3.20

Child race^b

White 128 71.10

Black or African-American 30 16.70

Asian 8 4.40

American Indian or Alaskan Native or Other 14 7.80

Child ethnicity

Hispanic 50 27.60

Child self-reported gender

Girl 93 51.70

Annual household income

Less than $25,000 5 2.80

$25,000–$50,000 24 13.50

$50,001–$75,000 29 16.30

$75,001–$100,000 38 21.30

$101,000–$150,000 43 24.20

Greater than $150,000 39 21.90

a
Values for categorical variables may not equal 100% due to missing demographic information.

b
Child race is based on parent's report of the child's race; child gender is based on the child's self-report.

Measures

Workplace Bullying

The Retrospective Bullying Questionnaire was used to assess parents’ bullying experiences in the workplace (Schäfer et al., 2004). In order to gather data on past workplace bullying, participants reported on their experiences by indicating: “I wasn’t bullied at my workplace,” “I was bullied in one of my previous jobs,” “I was bullied in more than one of my previous jobs,” and “I have been bullied in my present job.” Workplace bullying was coded so that 1 = experienced workplace bullying and 0 = never experienced workplace bullying.

Parental Management of Peers Inventory

The Parental Management of Peers Inventory (PMPI) measures the extent to which parents consult and guide their children's peer relationships (Mounts, 2004). The consulting subscale included questions about parents’ propensity to offer advice or suggestions about peer-related situations. This subscale measures the ways that parents help children conceptualize social situations. Sample questions include, “I encourage my child to think of several ways to solve a problem with a friend” and “My child and I talk about ways of making new friends.” The guiding subscale included questions that measured parents’ propensity to teach or instruct their child on how to behave with peers. Sample questions include, “I tell my child that I don't like his/her friends” and “I let my child know who I want to be their friends.” Participants indicated their answers on a four-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to; 4 = strongly agree). Reliability measured with Cronbach's ɑ for the consulting subscale was .76 and .80 for the guiding subscale.

Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale

The Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale (MPVS) assesses different types of peer victimization that children and adolescents experience (Mynard & Joseph, 2000). The MPVS measures four forms of victimization (i.e., physical, verbal, social manipulation, and attacks on property) and yields a total victimization score. Children read the following prompt: “Below is a list of things that some children do to other children. How often during the last school year has another pupil done these things to you?” Children examined 16 items and indicated their experience (e.g., not at all, once, and more than once). Sample items included, “Punched me,” “Called me names,” “Tried to get me into trouble with my friends,” and “Deliberately damaged some property of mine.” Analyses focused on total victimization scores. Reliability for the total MPVS scale was .89. A Box-Cox transformation was applied to MVPS prior to the regression analysis to correct for skew in the distribution.

Procedure

Before beginning the study, researchers obtained ethical clearance through the university's Institutional Review Board (IRB). Parent–child dyad participants were recruited from local elementary schools to participate in a longitudinal study that examined interpersonal relationships. The dyads began the study in the summer between fifth and sixth grade (T1) and participated either online or in a physical laboratory space. Participants provided consent for participation and completed additional measures as part of this larger project. Of relevance to the current study, parents completed the PMPI and Workplace Bullying measure in the summer before their child's sixth-grade year. Children completed the MPVS online in the fall of their sixth-grade year (T2).

Analysis

Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 29. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the sample characteristics and included frequencies and percentages for categorical variables and means and standard deviations for continuous variables (see Table 1). Linear regression models were used to test the effects of parental experiences of workplace bullying, guiding behavior, and consulting behavior on children's victimization. Three regression models were tested. The first model was used to predict MPVS with reported parental workplace bullying, guiding, and consulting behavior as predictors. Interaction terms were created by centering the two parental subscales for guiding and consulting behavior and multiplying by workplace bullying. Interaction terms for guiding behavior and consulting behavior were entered into separate regression models as there were issues of multicollinearity when both interaction terms were entered together.

Results

Table 2 reports bivariate correlations. Parent guiding behavior was negatively correlated with child victimization (r = −.19, p < .01). Victimization was higher among children with parents who reported a history of being bullied in the workplace compared to those with parents who had not (r = .23 p < .01). Consulting behavior was not significantly associated with child victimization (r = −.03, p > .05).

Table 2.
Bivariate Correlations.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) Child victimization —

(b) Parent guiding behavior −.19 —

(c) Parent consulting behavior −.03 .27* —

(d) Workplace bullying .23** −.04 −.01 —

p < .05; p < .01; p < .001.

The base model predicting MVPS with workplace bullying, guiding, and consulting was statistically significant and predicted approximately 9.0% of the variance in MVPS (F(3,177) = 5.86, p < .001, R²=.09). Children of parents who had experienced bullying in the workplace reported higher victimization compared to children with parents who had not experienced bullying in the workplace (B = 3.02, p = .002). Parental guiding was a significant predictor of MVPS (B = −3.67, p = .011). As parents reported guiding behavior increased, child victimization decreased. Consulting behavior was not significant in the base model (B = .52, p = .723).

Table 3 reports the linear regression results for parent guiding and consulting behavior predicting child victimization. Guiding and consulting behaviors were considered separately to reduce issues of multicollinearity, as these variables were designed as subscales. The parent guiding behavior model included the main effect for guiding behavior along with the interaction term for guiding behavior and bullying to test whether the parents’ experiences of workplace bullying moderated the relationship between guiding behavior and child victimization. This model explained 9.0% of the variance in MVPS, (F(1, 177) = 4.96, p < .001). The interaction term was significant in this model providing evidence of a moderating effect (B = −1.35, p = .027). The relationship between guiding behavior and victimization when parents have experienced workplace bullying and when they have not is illustrated in Figure 1. Simple slopes analysis indicated that the slope for parental guiding was significant and negative for parents who had been bullied in the workplace (p = .027); however, the slope was not significant for parents who had not been bullied in the workplace (p = .372). Thus, the effect of guiding behavior on child victimization appears to be salient for children of parents who have been bullied in the workplace, but not for children of parents who have not experienced workplace bullying. The parent consulting behavior model testing the interaction of consulting behavior and workplace bullying did not significantly improve upon a model with only consulting as a predictor (F(1,177) = 3.23, p = .091) and the interaction was not statistically significant (B = −1.04, p = .091).

Figure 1.
Interaction between guiding behavior and workplace bullying on child peer victimization.

Table 3.
Linear Regression Results for Parent Guiding and Consulting Behavior Predicting Child Victimization.

Variables B SE β t p

Parent guiding behavior

Constant 1.81 0.12 14.83 <.001*

Bullied in workplace 0.65 0.20 0.23 3.20 .002

Guiding behavior 0.06 0.35 0.26 0.18 <.001***

Interaction −1.35 0.61 0.20 −2.23 .027*

Parent consulting behavior

Constant 1.81 0.12 14.70 <.001*

Bullied in workplace 0.66 0.20 0.24 3.24 <.002

Consulting behavior 0.49 1.38 0.12 1.31 .192

Interaction −1.04 0.61 −1.16 −1.70 .091

p < .05; p < .01; p < .001.

Parent guiding behavior model: R² = .09, F(1, 177) = 4.96, p < .001.

Parent consulting behavior model: R² = .07, F(1, 177) = 4.52, p = .004.

Discussion

The present study examined the effects of workplace bullying and parental management (e.g., guiding and consulting) on children's experiences of peer victimization. The results revealed support for H1 and partial support for H2 and H3. Children of parents who have experienced workplace bullying reported higher levels of victimization than children of parents who have not experienced workplace bullying (H1). Further, higher levels of parental guiding were associated with lower levels of child victimization (H2). However, consulting was not significantly associated with child victimization. Finally, parental experiences of workplace bullying moderated the relationship between parental guiding and child victimization (H3). The negative relationship between parental guiding and child victimization was stronger when parents experienced workplace bullying than when they had not (H3).

Parents who experienced workplace bullying had children with higher levels of peer victimization (H1). This finding indicates a direct spillover effect from parental workplace victimization to children's social experiences and outcomes. Past research highlights negative family dynamic sequelae that occur as a result of parents’ experiences of victimization (Jahng, 2020; Pluut et al., 2022). Further, this finding reflects previous research that indicates an association between parents’ and children's experiences of victimization (Allison et al., 2014). The current study extends this research by explaining some of the nuance in the relationship among parental strategies (e.g., guiding), children's victimization, and parental victimization, as examined with H3.

Higher levels of parental guiding were associated with lower levels of child victimization (H2). Research has shown mixed findings on the effects of parental guidance on children's adjustment and victimization. While guiding is related to social inclusion and prosocial behavior (Gerardy et al., 2015; Salaam et al., 2022), it has also been implicated in relational aggression (Gerardy et al., 2015). The current study's findings align with research suggesting a link between parental guiding and positive peer relationships (Gerardy et al., 2015; Salaam et al., 2022). The present study highlights a protective association between guiding and victimization.

Of note, consulting behavior (e.g., giving advice and talking through situations) did not significantly predict child victimization or play a moderating role. These results suggest that discussion or advice may be insufficient in mitigating children's social risk. Direct, structured guidance may be more effective in shaping children's peer experiences. While past research suggests that higher levels of consulting are associated with lower levels of victimization (Low & Mounts, 2022), the current study adds a more refined perspective. Low and Mounts (2022) examined adolescent reports of maternal consulting, whereas the current study examined mothers’ reports of consulting and guiding. The combined perspective of both mothers and children may indicate that guiding, in conjunction with consulting, may be an effective way to approach children's peer relationships, though further research is needed to distinguish the contributions of each strategy.

The present research indicates that parental workplace victimization moderates the relationship between parental guiding and child victimization (H3). The negative relationship between parental guiding and child victimization was stronger when parents had experienced workplace bullying. Parents’ experiences of victimization can be seen as a protective factor (Lightner et al., 2000). Victimized parents may have a more personal context of bullying (Cooper & Nickerson, 2013; Putallaz et al., 1991). This existing framework could be associated with parental management (e.g., guiding), preventative actions (e.g., how to address difficult peer situations), and restorative actions (e.g., how to address bullying after it has occurred), which could impact children's experiences of victimization. These results highlight the importance of active parental involvement (e.g., advising on friendships and regulating peer choices) in mitigating deleterious social situations for children. Further, the current study highlights the potential protective nature of direct, personal experiences of parents’ victimization. Past research emphasizes the importance of parental management and involvement in children's social experiences (Mounts, 2011; Salaam et al., 2022), but the current study further contextualizes the importance of guidance in the midst of parent adversity. Even when parents are facing adversity in the workplace, they can counteract the risks of emotional and psychological spillover to children through active management and involvement.

Further, these findings add nuance to spillover theory and intergenerational findings on victimization. Existing literature highlights the negative ways in which workplace bullying affects family dynamics (Jahng, 2020; Jie et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2013; Pluut et al., 2022; Sarwar et al., 2021). Parents may become more withdrawn, aggressive, and emotionally drained, which can negatively affect parent–child interactions (Jahng, 2020; Sarwar et al., 2021). However, such experiences of victimization may also be a framework from which to guide children in peer relationships (Cooper & Nickerson, 2013; Putallaz et al., 1991). As illustrated in the current study, parents’ experiences of workplace victimization moderate the association between parental guiding and children's victimization. Parents’ personal victimization experiences can influence guidance strategies, which can positively impact children's experiences of victimization and peer difficulties.

Limitations & Future Directions

Results must be interpreted in light of the study's limitations. Namely, the sample was predominantly composed of mothers. Fathers are historically absent from parenting literature (Cabrera et al., 2018; Phares et al., 2005). Additionally, research indicates differences in ways that mothers and fathers guide their children in difficult peer situations (Allan et al., 2024). Future research should examine fathers for a more complex perspective of parenting styles and management.

Additionally, the current study included only one measure of workplace bullying. Parents selected from one of four items that best represented their experience with workplace bullying: “I wasn’t bullied at my workplace,” “I was bullied in one of my previous jobs,” “I was bullied in more than one of my previous jobs,” and “I have been bullied in my present job.” While these prompts measure general workplace bullying, future research may implement measures that gauge specific forms of victimization that may occur in the workplace. Research has shown that single-item questions regarding bullying may generate lower victimization rates in children than multi-item approaches (Jetelina et al., 2019). However, past research has used single-item bullying measures successfully (Garandeau et al., 2019; Haraldstad et al., 2019).

Additionally, this study primarily examined parental guiding and consulting as peer management strategies. Parents and children may have different perceptions of parental strategies (e.g., parenting style, guiding, and consulting; Berkien et al., 2012; Cho et al., 2020), which may impact familial dynamics, particularly when faced with children's victimization. Of note, Low and Mounts (2022) used children's reports of parental strategies, rather than parents’ reports, which could account for the differences in results found in the present study. Future research may utilize and compare both children's and parents’ reports of parenting strategies to examine the potential impact of any differences in perception of strategies on familial dynamics and peer victimization.

Implications

This study adds nuance to current spillover theory (Jahng, 2020; Jie et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2013; Pluut et al., 2022; Sarwar et al., 2021). Parental management strategies (e.g., guiding) are associated with lower levels of children's victimization. Parental experiences of workplace bullying can impact this relationship. The present study is consistent with past research that has shown the negative intergenerational effects of parental victimization (Boddy et al., 2024; Lightner et al., 2000). The present study adds to our understanding of spillover theory and intergenerational work by situating parental victimization as a potential protective factor for children's victimization. Parents who have experienced victimization have firsthand experiences of peer difficulties, which may equip them to guide their children more effectively in their peer relationships (Cooper & Nickerson, 2013; Putallaz et al., 1991). These findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions to aid parents in maintaining effective guiding behaviors in light of workplace stressors. Parenting resources and programs could integrate literature and research, offering specific behavioral strategies, on how to guide children's relationships when faced with external stressors (e.g., workplace bullying). In addition, study findings point to the utility of counseling families from a family systems perspective that would likely benefit parents and children who have experienced victimization by working toward creating a joint understanding of the impact of bullying on each family member and on the family system (deLara, 2019). Companies, organizational policymakers, and those in organizational leadership may conduct dialogues about the importance of familial and intergenerational consequences of workplace bullying and integrate its discussion in antibullying interventions.

Characteristic	Mean or N	SD or %
Analysis variables
Victimization	6.66	6.50
Guiding behavior	2.77	0.34
Consulting behavior	3.44	0.33
Ever bullied in workplace	67	37.00
Parent age	40.98	6.98
Parent years of education	14.64	5.50
Parent marital status
Married or remarried	132	74.20
Divorced	15	8.30
Never married	15	8.40
Other	16	3.20
Child race^b
White	128	71.10
Black or African-American	30	16.70
Asian	8	4.40
American Indian or Alaskan Native or Other	14	7.80
Child ethnicity
Hispanic	50	27.60
Child self-reported gender
Girl	93	51.70
Annual household income
Less than $25,000	5	2.80
$25,000–$50,000	24	13.50
$50,001–$75,000	29	16.30
$75,001–$100,000	38	21.30
$101,000–$150,000	43	24.20
Greater than $150,000	39	21.90

	(a)	(b)	(c)	(d)
(a) Child victimization	—
(b) Parent guiding behavior	−.19**	—
(c) Parent consulting behavior	−.03	.27***	—
(d) Workplace bullying	.23**	−.04	−.01	—

Variables	B	SE	β	t	p
Parent guiding behavior
Constant	1.81	0.12		14.83	<.001***
Bullied in workplace	0.65	0.20	0.23	3.20	.002**
Guiding behavior	0.06	0.35	0.26	0.18	<.001***
Interaction	−1.35	0.61	0.20	−2.23	.027*
Parent consulting behavior
Constant	1.81	0.12		14.70	<.001***
Bullied in workplace	0.66	0.20	0.24	3.24	<.002**
Consulting behavior	0.49	1.38	0.12	1.31	.192
Interaction	−1.04	0.61	−1.16	−1.70	.091

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

We are deeply grateful for the participation of children and families in this study. Research reported in this publication was supported by the NICHD under award number R15HD098561. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

ORCID iD

Lisa H. Rosen

Ethical Considerations

All study procedures were approved by Texas Woman's University IRB (IRB-FY2019-335).

Consent to Participate

Parents provided consent for their participation as well as their children's participation. Children provided assent prior to participating.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported by NICHD R15HD098561-01A1.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

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