Beyond Family Ethnic Socialization and Heritage Language Ability: The Relation between Desire to Learn Heritage Language and Ethnic Identity

Abstract

We examined the relationship between ethnic identity (EI), family ethnic socialization (FES), heritage language ability (HLA), and desire to learn a heritage language (HLD) in a sample of 91 U.S. psychology graduate students. We had four main findings. First, HLD had a significant positive relation with EI (24.9%). Second, FES had a significant positive relation with EI (33.8%). Above and beyond FES, HLD uniquely accounted for 10.9% of the variance of EI. Third, HLA had a significant positive relation with EI (12.3%). Above and beyond HLA, HLD uniquely accounted for 12.7% of the variance of EI. Accounting for the contribution of HLD decreased the beta associated with HLA; a finding that suggests HLD may mediate the relation between HLA and EI. Fourth, the combined contribution of FES and HLA accounted for approximately 36.3% of the variance of EI. HLD had a significant positive relation to ethnic identity after the other the factors in this study were considered, in combination, and uniquely explained 9.0% of the variance of EI. Our results highlight the importance of considering internal factors, such as desire to learn a heritage language, when examining ethnic identity. Implications for practice and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Keywords

ethnic identity heritage language ethnic language family ethnic socialization

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Alsahafi

(2022). When homeland remains a distant dream: Language attitudes and heritage language maintenance among Rohingya refugees in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(4), 1292–1303. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2020.1754753

Alzayed

N. N. Y.

(2015). Preserving immigrants’ native language and cultural identity in multilingual and multicultural societies. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 5(1), 263–267. http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_5_No_2_February_2015/30.pdf

Bailey

(2000). Language and negotiation of ethnic/racial identity among Dominican Americans. Language in Society, 29(4), 555–582. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404500004036

Baker

Jones

(1998). Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon.

Banegas

D. L.

Roberts

(2022). ‘If we don’t study the language, the history will be lost’: Motivation to learn Welsh in Argentine Patagonia. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(3), 1137–1150. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2020.1742651

Baron

R. M.

Kenny

D. A.

(1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173

Brown

C. L.

(2009). Heritage language and ethnic identity: A case study of Korean-American college students. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.18251/ijme.v11i1.157

Brown

S. D.

K. A. U.

Mevi

A. A.

Hedderson

M. M.

Shan

Quesenberry

C. P.

Ferrara

(2014). The multigroup ethnic identity measure-revised: Measurement invariance across racial and ethnic groups. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(1), 154–161.

Burn

S. M.

Winter

P. L.

Hori

Silver

N. C.

(2012). Gender, ethnic identity, and environmental concern in Asian Americans and European Americans. Human Ecology Review, 19(2), 136–145. https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/winter/psw_2012_winter001_burn.pdf

10.

Carreira

(2004). Seeking explanatory adequacy: A dual approach to understanding the term “heritage language learner”. Heritage Language Journal, 2(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.46538/hlj.2.1.1

11.

Chakawa

Butler

R. C.

Shapiro

S. K.

(2015). Examining the psychometric validity of the multigroup ethnic identity measure-revised (MEIM-R) in a community sample of African American and European American adults. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(4), 643–648. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000025

12.

Cheng

S. H.

Kuo

W. H.

(2000). Family socialization of ethnic identity among Chinese American pre-adolescents. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 463–484. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-05963-004 https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.31.4.463

13.

Cho

K. S.

Tse

(1997). Why ethnic minorities want to develop their heritage language: The case of Korean-Americans. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 10(2), 106–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908319709525244

14.

Choi

(2023). Understanding the perspectives, practices, and expectations of Korean American parents toward the heritage language education of their children (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of San Francisco.

15.

Choi

Harachi

T. W.

(2008). Intergenerational cultural dissonance, parent-child conflict and bonding, and youth problem behaviors among Vietnamese and Cambodian immigrant families. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 37(1), 85–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9217-z

16.

Comanaru

Noels

K. A.

(2009). Self-determination, motivation, and the learning of Chinese as a heritage language. Canadian Modern Language Review, 66(1), 131–158. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.66.1.131

17.

deSouza

D. K.

Lin

Cox

R. B.

(2022). Immigrant parents and children navigating two languages: A scoping review. Journal of Family Theory & Review. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12484

18.

Dietrich

Hernandez

(2022). Language use in the United States: 2019. American Community Survey Reports. Retrieved January 24, 2023 from https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2022/acs/acs-50.pdf

19.

Gamst

Dana

R. H.

Der-Karabetian

Aragón

Arellano

L. M.

Kramer

(2002). Effects of Latino acculturation and ethnic identity on mental health outcomes. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 24(4), 479–504. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986302238216

20.

Gatbonton

Trofimovich

(2008). The ethnic group affiliation and L2 proficiency link: Empirical evidence. Language Awareness, 17(3), 229–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658410802146867

21.

Giles

Johnson

(1987). Ethnolinguistic identity theory: A ocial psychological approach to language maintenance. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 68, 69–100. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.1987.68.69

22.

Gonzalez

J. E.

Liew

Zou

Curtis

(2022). “They’re going to forget about their mother tongue”: Influence of Chinese beliefs in child home language and literacy development. Early Childhood Educaction Journal, 50(1), 1109–1120. https://doi.org/https://doi-org/10.1007/s10643-021-01241-x

23.

Greig

(2003). Ethnic identity development: Implications for mental health in African-American and Hispanic adolescents. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24(3), 317–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840305278

24.

Gushue

G. V.

(2006). The relationship of ethnic identity, career decision-making self-efficacy and outcome expectations among Latino/a high school students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(1), 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2005.03.002

25.

Helms

J. E.

(2007). Some better practices for measuring racial and ethnic identity constructs. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 235.

26.

Herrington

H. M.

Smith

T. B.

Feinauer

Griner

(2016). Reliability generalization of the multigroup ethnic identity measure-revised (MEIM-R). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(5), 586–593. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000148

27.

House

L. E.

Stiffman

A. R.

Brown

(2006). Unraveling cultural threads: A qualitative study of culture and ethnic identity among urban Southwestern American Indian youth parents and elders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15(4), 393–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9038-9

28.

Huh

N. S.

Reid

W. J.

(2000). Intercountry, transracial adoption and ethnic identity: A Korean example. International Social Work, 43(1), 75–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/002087280004300107

29.

Hurtado

Gurin

(1987). Ethnic identity and bilingualism attitudes. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 9(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/073998638703090101

30.

Imbens-Bailey

A. L.

(1996). Ancestral language acquisition implications for aspects of ethnic identity among Armenian American children and adolescents. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15(4), 422–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X960154002

31.

Iwamoto

D. K.

Negi

N. J.

Partiali

R. N.

Creswell

J. W.

(2013). The racial and ethnic identity formation process of second-generation Asian Indian Americans: A phenomenological study. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 41(4), 224–239. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2013.00038.x

32.

Jaspal

Coyle

(2010). ‘My language, my people’: Language and ethnic identity among British-born South Asians. South Asian Diaspora, 2(2), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/19438192.2010.491299

33.

H. Y.

(2001). ‘Heritage’ language learning and ethnic identity: Korean Americans’ struggle with language authorities. Language Culture and Curriculum, 14(1), 26–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908310108666610

34.

Kalbach

M. A.

Pigott

B. S.

(2005). Language effects on ethnic identity in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies Journal, 37(2), 3–18.

35.

Khanna

(2004). The role of reflected appraisals in racial identity: The case of multiracial Asians. Social Psychology Quarterly, 67(2), 115–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/019027250406700201

36.

Kim

S. Y.

Chao

R. K.

(2009). Heritage language fluency, ethnic identity, and school effort of immigrant Chinese and Mexico adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013052

37.

Knight

G. P.

Bernal

M. E.

Garza

C. A.

Cota

M. K.

Ocampo

K. A.

(1993). Family socialization and the ethnic identity of Mexican-American children. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24(1), 99–114. https://doi.org/0.1111/j.1467-1770.1976.10.1080/13670050008667706tb00265.x

38.

Kwan

K. L. K.

Sodowsky

G. R.

(1997). Internal and external ethnic identity and their correlates: A study of Chinese American immigrants. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 25(1), 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.1997.tb00315.x

39.

Marbley

A. F.

Bradley

L. J.

Lan

(2016). Attitudes toward seeking professional counseling services among Chinese international students: Acculturation, ethnic identity, and English proficiency. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 44(1), 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12037

40.

Luo

S. H.

Wiseman

R. L.

(2000). Heritage language maintenance among Chinese immigrant children in the United States. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24(3), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(00)00003-1

41.

Mah

(2005). Ethnic identity and heritage language ability in second generation Canadians in Toronto (Master’s thesis). Ryerson University. https://doi.org/10.32920/ryerson.14661078.v1

42.

Martinez

R. O.

Dukes

R. L.

(1997). The effects of ethnic identity, ethnicity, and gender on adolescent well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26(5), 503–516. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024525821078

43.

McClain

Beasley

S. T.

Jones

Awosogba

Jackson

Cokley

(2016). An examination of the impact of racial and ethnic identity, impostor feelings, and minority status stress on the mental health of Black college students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 44(2), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12040

44.

McMahon

S. D.

Watts

R. J.

(2002). Ethnic identity in urban African American youth: Exploring links with self-worth, aggression, and other psychosocial variables. Journal of Community Psychology, 30(4), 411–431. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.10013

45.

Mossakowski

K. N.

(2003). Coping with perceived discrimination: Does ethnic identity protect mental health? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 318–331. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519782

46.

Meyer

O. L.

Zane

(2013). The influence of race and ethnicity in clients’ experiences of mental health treatment. Journal of Community Psychology, 41(7), 884–901. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21580

47.

G. M.

(2015). Learning Chinese as a heritage language: An Australian perspective. Multilingual Matters.

48.

Musso

Moscardino

Inguglia

(2018). The multigroup ethnic identity measure-revised (MEIM-R): Psychometric evaluation with adolescents from diverse ethnocultural groups in Italy. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15(4), 395–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2016.1278363

49.

Nassar-McMillan

S. C.

Lambert

R. G.

Hakim-Larson

(2011). Discrimination history, backlash fear, and ethnic identity among Arab Americans: Post-9/11 snapshots. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 39(1), 38–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2011.tb00138.x

50.

Noels

(2005). Orientations to learning German: Heritage language learning and motivational substrates. Canadian Modern Language Review, 62(2), 285–312. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.62.2.285

51.

J. S.

Fuligni

A. J.

(2010). The role of heritage language development in the ethnic identity and family relationships of adolescents from immigrant backgrounds. Social Development, 19(1), 202–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00530.x

52.

Oriyama

(2010). Heritage language maintenance and Japanese identity formation: What role can schooling and ethnic community contact play. Heritage Language Journal, 7(2), 76–111. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ912632 https://doi.org/10.46538/hlj.7.2.5

53.

Panicacci

(2019). Do the languages migrants use in private and emotional domains define their cultural belonging more than the passport they have? International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 69, 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2019.01.003

54.

Park

Han

(2022). Developmental trajectories of Korean and heritage language proficiencies and their association with maladjustment among Korean multicultural adolescents. Child Development. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13887

55.

Passel

J. S.

Cohn

D. V.

(2008). U.S. population projections: 2005–2050. Pew Research Center’s Hispanic Trends Project. Retrieved January 24, 2023, from https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2008/02/11/us-population-projections-2005-2050/

56.

Phinney

J. S.

(1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 499–514. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499

57.

Phinney

J. S.

(1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure a new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355489272003

58.

Phinney

J. S.

Cantu

C. L.

Kurtz

D. A.

(1997). Ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among African American, Latino, and White adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26(2), 165–185. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024500514834

59.

Phinney

Ong

(2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271–281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271

60.

Phinney

J. S.

Romero

Nava

Huang

(2001). The role of language, parents, and peers in ethnic identity among adolescents in immigrant families. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30, 135–153. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010389607319

61.

Quintana

S. M.

Castaneda-English

Ybarra

V. C.

(1999). Role of perspective-taking abilities and ethnic socialization in development of adolescent ethnic identity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9(2), 161–184. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327795jra0902_3

62.

Quintana

S. M.

Vera

E. M.

(1999). Mexican American children’s ethnic identity, understanding of ethnic prejudice, and parental ethnic socialization. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 21(4), 387–404. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986399214001

63.

Ricento

(2005). Considerations of identity in L2 learning. In Hinkel

(Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 895–910). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410612700.

64.

Rosenthal

D. A.

Cichello

A. M.

(1986). The meeting of two cultures: Ethnic identity and psychosocial adjustment of Italian-Australian adolescents. International Journal of Psychology, 21(4-5), 487–501. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207598608247603

65.

Sáenz-Hernández

Lapresta-Rey

Petreñas

Ianos

M. A.

(2021). When immigrant and regional minority languages coexist: Linguistic authority and integration in multilingual linguistic acculturation. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(8), 2774–2787. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2021.1977235

66.

Schecter

S. R.

Bayley

(1997). Language socialization practices and cultural identity: Case studies of Mexican-descent families in California and Texas. TESOL Quarterly, 31(3), 513–541. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587836

67.

Simons

R. L.

Murry

McLoyd

Lin

K. H.

Cutrona

Conger

R. D.

(2002). Discrimination, crime, ethnic identity, and parenting as correlates of depressive symptoms among African American children: A multilevel analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14(02), 371–393. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579402002109

68.

Szapocznik

Santisteban

Kurtines

W. M.

Perez-Vidal

Hervis

O. E.

(1984). Bicultural effectiveness training (BET): A treatment intervention for enhancing intercultural adjustment. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 6(4), 317–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863840064001

69.

Tajfel

Turner

J. C.

(1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In Worchel

Austin

W. G.

(Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 7–24). Nelson-Hall.

70.

Taylor

D. M.

Bassili

J. N.

Aboud

F. E.

(1973). Dimensions of ethnic identity: An example from Quebec. The Journal of Social Psychology, 89(2), 185–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1973.9922590

71.

Thorsos

(2019). Language loss: Implications for Latinx cultural identity. In Keough

P. D.

(Ed.), Ethical problem-solving and decision-making for positive and conclusive outcomes (pp. 415–429). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-7582-5.

72.

Tsai

J. L.

Ying

Y. W.

Lee

P. A.

(2000). The meaning of “being Chinese” and “being American”: Variation among Chinese American young adults. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(3), 302–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022100031003002

73.

Tse

(1998). Ethnic identity formation and its implications for heritage language development. In Krashen

S. D.

Tse

McQuillan

(Eds.), Heritage language development (pp. 15–29). Language Education Associates.

74.

Tse

(2000). The effects of ethnic identity formation on bilingual maintenance and development: An analysis of Asian American narratives. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 3(3), 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050008667706

75.

Tse

(2001). Resisting and reversing language shift: Heritage-language resilience among U.S. native biliterates. Harvard Educational Review, 71(4), 676–709. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.71.4.ku752mj536413336

76.

Umaña-Taylor

A. J.

(2001). Ethnic identity development among Mexican-origin Latino adolescents living in the U.S. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Missouri, Columbia.

77.

Umaña-Taylor

A. J.

Bhanot

Shin

(2006). Ethnic identity formation during adolescence: The critical role of families. Journal of Family Issues, 27(3), 390–414. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X05282960

78.

Umaña-Taylor

A. J.

Updegraff

K. A.

(2007). Latino adolescents’ mental health: Exploring the interrelations among discrimination, ethnic identity, cultural orientation, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescence, 30(4), 549–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.08.002

79.

U.S. Census Bureau (2021). A more diverse nation. The Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/2021/comm/a-more-diverse-nation.html

80.

Wang

Wen

Sim

Yan

Kim

S. Y.

(2022). Family environment, heritage language profiles, and socioemotional well-being of Mexican-origin adolescents with first generation immigrant parents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51(1), 1196–1209. https://doi.org/https://doi-org.proxy.lib.pacificu.edu/10.1007/s10964-022-01594-5

81.

Weisskirch

R. S.

(2005). The relationship of language brokering to ethnic identity for Latino early adolescents. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 27(3), 286–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986305277931

82.

Shim

Lotz

Almeida

(2004). Ethnic identity, socialization factors, and culture-specific consumption behavior. Psychology of Marketing, 21(2), 93–112. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.10117

83.

You

B. K.

(2005). Children negotiating Korean American ethnic identity through their heritage language. Bilingual Research Journal, 29(3), 711–721. https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2005.10162860