This study examines the relationship between racial identity, race-related stress, and racial socialization messages of over 400 African American parents. Results suggest that parents with higher levels of private regard or pride about being African American, and nationalist ideology are more likely to give racial socialization messages. Parents who have experienced race-related stress are also more likely to engage in racial socialization. Additionally, the results indicate parents with high private regard and who have experienced race-related stress serve as the best predictor of in racial socialization, suggesting the recognition of the importance of buffering children from acts of racism. Implications for counseling, parenting programs, and further research are provided.
Banks, K.H., & Kohn-Wood, L.P. (2007). The influence of racial identity profiles on the relationship between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. Journal of Black Psychology, 33, 331-354.
2.
Clark, R., Anderson, N.B., Clark, V.R., & Williams, D.R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist , 54, 805-816.
3.
Cohen, J. ( 1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum .
4.
Cokley, K.O. ( 2002). Testing Cross’ revised racial identity model: An examination of the relationship between racial identity and internalized racialism . Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 476-483.
5.
Constantine, M.G., & Blackmon, S.M. (2002). Black adolescents’ racial socialization experiences: Their relations to home, school, and peer self-esteem. Journal of Black Studies, 32, 322-335.
6.
Davis, G., & Stevenson, H.C. (2006). Racial socialization experiences and symptoms of depression among Black youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 303-317.
7.
Frabutt, J.M., Walker, A.M., & MacKinnon-Lewis, C. (2002). Racial socialization messages and the quality of mother/child interactions in AfricanAmerican families. Journal of Early Adolescence, 22, 200-217.
8.
Greene, B.A. ( 1992). Racial socialization as a tool in psychotherapy with African American children. In L. A. Vargas & J. D. Koss-Chioino (Eds.), Working with culture: Psychotherapeutic interventions with ethnic minority children and adolescents (pp. 63-81). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
9.
Harrell, S.P. ( 2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42-57.
10.
Harrison, A.O., Wilson, M.N., Pine, C.J., Chon, S.Q., & Buriel, R. ( 1990). Family ecologies of ethnic minority children. Child Development, 61, 347-362.
11.
Hughes, D., & Chen, L. ( 1997). When and what parents tell children about race: An examination of race-related socialization among AfricanAmerican families. Applied Developmental Science, 1, 200-214.
12.
Hughes, D., & Johnson, D. ( 2001). Correlates in children’s experiences of parents’ racial socialization behaviors. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 981-995.
13.
Hughes, D., Smith, E.P., Stevenson, H.C., Rodriguez, J., Johnson, D.J., & Spicer, P. ( 2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 747-770.
14.
Jackson, J.S., Brown, T.N., Williams, D.R., Torres, M., Sellers, S.L., & Brown, K. ( 1996). Racism and the physical and mental health status of African Americans: A thirteen year national panel study. Ethnicity and Disease, 6, 132-147.
15.
Johnson, S.C., & Arbona, C. ( 2006). The relation of ethnic identity, racial identity, and race-related stress among African American college students. Journal of College Student Development, 47, 495-507.
16.
Klonoff, E.A., Landrine, H., & Ullman, J.B. ( 1999). Racial discrimination and psychiatric symptoms among Blacks. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology , 5, 329-339.
17.
Krieger, N. ( 1990). Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood pressure. Social Science and Medicine, 30, 1273-1281.
18.
Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E.A. ( 1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144-168.
19.
Marshall, S. ( 1995). Ethnic socialization of African American children: Implications for parenting, identity development, and academic achievement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 377-396.
20.
McHale, S.M., Crouter, A.C., Kim, J., Burton, L.M., Davis, K.D., Dotterer, A.M., & Swanson, D.P. ( 2006). Mothers’ and fathers’ racial socialization in African American families: Implications for youth. Child Development, 77, 1387-1402.
21.
Sellers, R.M., Caldwell, C.H., Schmeelk-Cone, K.H., & Zimmerman, M.A. (2003). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 44, 302-317.
22.
Sellers, R.M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P.P., & Lewis, R.L. ( 2006). Racial identity matters: The relationship between racial discrimination and psychological functioning in AfricanAmerican adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 187-216.
23.
Sellers, R.M., & Shelton, N. ( 2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1079-1092.
24.
Sellers, R.M., Smith, M.A., Shelton, J.N., Rowley, S.A.J., & Chavous, T.M. ( 1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 18-39.
25.
Sherry, A., Wood, K., Jackson, E.B., & Kaslow, N. ( 2006). Racist events and ethnic identity in low income African Americans. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 1365-1380.
26.
Stevenson, H.C. ( 1995). Relationships of adolescent perceptions of racial socialization to racial identity. Journal of Black Psychology, 21, 49-70.
27.
Thomas, A.J., & Speight, S.L. ( 1999). Racial identity and racial socialization attitudes of African-American parents. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 152-170.
28.
Thompson, V.L.S. ( 2002). Racism: Perceptions of distress among African Americans . Community Mental Health Journal, 38, 223-233.
29.
Thompson, V.L.S. ( 1996). Perceived experiences of racism as stressful life events . Community Mental Health Journal, 32, 223-233.
30.
Utsey, S.O., Chae, M.H., Brown, C.F., & Kelly, D. ( 2002). Effect of ethnic group membership on ethnic identity, race-related stress and quality of life. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 366-377.
31.
Utsey, S.O., Ponterotto, J.G., Reynolds, A.L., & Cancelli, A.A. (2000). Racial discrimination, coping, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Counseling and Development, 78, 72-81.
