An explosion in the literature on women and politics has been stimulated by the contemporary women's movement. This paper argues that an early diversity in theoretical orientation and methodology has been replaced by a narrow orthodoxy characterized by the use of polling and the survey method, and the theoretical voting behavior model employed by the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan. Left out of this approach is the study of political parties as organizations-a variable presented here as essential to the study of women in politics. The image of parties in women and politics scholarship is surveyed, as are the theoretical implications of ignoring women's gains in political parties in such studies.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abzug, Bella, and Mim Kelber.1984. The Gender Gap. Boston, MA: Houghton Mlfflin.
2.
Amundsen, Kirsten.1971. The Silenced Majority. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
3.
Anderson, Kristi.1988. Review of Karen Beckwith, American Women and Political Participation. New York: Greenwood Press (1986). Women and Politics8: 92-93.
4.
Baer, Denise L.1983. "'Men and Women in Political Parties." Ph.D. dissertation . Southern Illinois University.
5.
_. 1991. "National Federation of Republican Women." In L. Sandy Maisel, ed., Political Parties and Elections in the United States: An Encyclopedia. New York : Garland.
6.
_. 1993. "Who Has the Body?" Party Institutionalization and Theories of Party Organization." American Review of Politics14 (Spring).
7.
Baer, Denise L., and David A. Bositis .1988. Elite Cadres and Party Coalitions . Westport, CT: Greenwood Press .
8.
_. 1993. Politics and Linkage in a Democratic Society. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
9.
Baxter, Sandra, and Marjorie Lansing .1984 (1980). Women and Politics. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
10.
Benthall, John.1993. "Arms Against a Sea of Troubles." Anthropology Today9 (February): 1-2.
11.
Berstein, Robert A.1986. "Why Are There So Few Women in the House?" Western Political Quarterly39 (March): 155-64.
12.
Blydenburgh, John C.1985. "Introduction." In Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting/Visions of Democracy , pp. 3-15. New York: Basic Books.
13.
Boals, Kay.1975. "Political Science-The Politics of Male-Female Relations: The Function of Feminist Scholarship." Signs1: 161-74.
14.
Boneparth, Ellen.1977. "Women in Campaigns." American Politics Quarterly5: 289-300.
15.
Bonk, Joyce.1988. "The Selling of the 'Gender Gap': The Role of Organized Feminism." In Carol M. Mueller, ed., The Politics of the Gender Gap, pp. 81-101. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
16.
Bositis, David A.1990. Research Designs for Political Science. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press .
17.
Bourque, Susan C., and Jean Grossholtz.1974. "Politics as Unnatural Practice: Political Science Looks at Female Participation." Politics and Society4: 225-65.
18.
Burrell, Barbara C.1988. "The Political Opportunity Structure of Women Candidates for the U.S. House of Representatives in 1984." Women and Politics8: 51-68.
19.
Carroll, Bernice.1979. "Part I: American Politics and Political Behavior ." Signs5: 289-306.
20.
Carroll, Susan J.1985. Women as Candidates in American Politics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
21.
Coleman, Milton.1986. "Reagan Rating Falls in Polls of Blacks." Washington Post, January 18, pp. A1, A6.
22.
Conlan, Timothy, Ann Martino, and Robert Dilger.1984. "State Parties in the 1980s: Adaptation, Resurgence, and Continuing Constraints." Inter-governmental Perspective10: 6-13.
23.
Cook, Beverly B.1983. "First Women in Political Science: No Home in the Discipline ." A paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago .
24.
Costain, Anne N.1988. "Women's Claims as a Special Interest." In Carol M. Mueller, ed., The Politics of the Gender Gap, pp. 150-72. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
25.
Cotter, Comelius P., James L. Gibson, John F. Bibby, and Robert J. Huckshorn .1989 (1984). Party Organizations in American Politics. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
26.
Crotty, William J.1983. Party Reform. New York: Longman.
27.
Dahl, Robert A.1961. "The Behavioral Approach in Political Science: Epitaph for a Monument to a Successful Protest." American Political Science Review55: 763-72.
28.
Darcy, R., Susan Welch, and Janet Clark.1987. Women, Elections, and Representation . New York: Longman.
29.
Diamond, Irene.1977. Sex Roles in the State House. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
30.
Diamond, Irene, and Nancy Hartsock.1981. "Beyond Interests in Politics: A Comment on Virginia Sapiro's 'When are Interests Interesting?' " American Political Science Review75: 717-21.
31.
Eckholm, Eric.1984. "New View of Female Primates Assails Stereotypes ." New York Times, September 18, p. C1.
32.
Eldersveld, Samuel.1964. Political Parties: A Behavioral Analysis. Chicago: Rand McNally.
33.
Epstein, Leon D.1983. "The Scholarly Commitment to Parties." In Ada Finifter, ed., Political Science: The State of the Discipline, pp. 127-53. Washington, DC : American Political Science Association.
34.
Farah, Barbara G., and Ethel Klein.1988. "The Return of the Gender Gap." Polling Report4: 1, 6.
35.
Feigenbaum, Edward D., and James A. Palmer .1988. Ballot Access. Washington, DC: FEC.
36.
Firestone, Shulamith.1971. "On American Feminism." In Vivian Gornick and Barbara K. Moran, eds., Woman in Sexist Society, pp. 665-86. New York: New American Library.
37.
Flammang, Janet A.1984. "Filling the Party Vacuum: Women at the Grassroots Level in Local Politics." In Janet A. Flammang , ed., Political Women, pp. 87-113. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
38.
_. 1985. "Female Officials in the Feminist Capital: The Case of Santa Clara County." Western Political Quarterly38 (March): 94-116.
39.
Fowlkes, Diane L.1984. "Ambitious Political Woman: Countersocialization and Political Party Context." Women and Politics4: 5-32.
40.
Fowlkes, Diane L., Jerry Perkins, and Sue Tolleson Rinehart .1979. "Gender Roles and Party Roles ." American Political Science Review73: 772-80.
41.
Frankovic, Kathleen A.1982. "Sex and Politics: New Alignments, Old Issues." P.S.15: 439-48.
42.
_. 1988. "The Ferraro Factor: The Women's Movement, the Polls and the Press." In Carol M. Mueller, ed., The Politics of The Gender Gap, pp. 102-23. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
43.
Freeman, Jo.1975. The Politics of Women's Liberation. New York: Longman.
44.
_, ed. 1983. Social Movements of the Sixties and SeventiesNew York: Longman.
45.
_. 1986. "The Political Culture of the Democratic and Republican Parties." Political Science Quarterly101: 321-56.
46.
_. 1988. "Women at the 1988 Democratic Convention."P.S.21: 875-81.
47.
_. 1989. "Feminist Activities at the 1988 Republican Convention."P.S.22: 39-46.
48.
Gehlen, Frieda.1969. "Women in Congress." Transaction6: 36-40.
49.
Gelb, Joyce.1989. Feminism and Politics: A Comparative Perspective . Berkeley: University of California Press.
50.
Gertzog, Irwin N.1984. Congressional Women. New York : Praeger.
51.
Githens, Marianne.1983. "The Elusive Paradigm-Gender, Politics and Political Behavior. The State of the Art." In Ada W. Finifter , ed., Political Science: The State of the DisciplineWashington, DC: APSA.
52.
_. 1984. "Women and State Politics: An Assessment." In Janet A. Flammang, ed., Political Women, pp. 41-64. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
53.
Githens, Marianne, and Jewell L. Prestage, eds. 1977. A Portrait of Marginality . New York: David McKay.
54.
Glenney, Daryl.1982. "Women in Politics: On the Rise." Campaigns and Elections3 (Winter): 18-24.
55.
Goot, Murry, and Elizabeth Reid.1975. "Women and Voting Studies: Mindless Matrons or Sexist Scholarship." Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
56.
Gottlieb, Paul D.1986. "Women's Campaigner Puts Numbers to Work." National Journal, September 20, p 2262.
57.
Gruberg, Martin. 1968. Women in American Politics. Oshkosh, WI: Academia Press .
58.
Gugin, Linda C.1986. "The Impact of Political Structure on the Political Power of Women: A Comparison of Britain and the United States." Women and Politics6: 37-55.
59.
Herrnson, Paul.1988. Party Campaigning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
60.
Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer.1981. The Woman That Never Evolved. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
61.
Huckshorn, Robert J.1976. Party Leadership in the States. Amherst : University of Massachusetts Press.
62.
Jaquette, Jane S., ed. 1974. Women in Politics. New York: Wiley .
63.
_. 1976. "Political Science." Signs2: 147-64.
64.
Jennings, M. Kent, and Barbara Farah.1981. "Social Roles and Political Resources."American Journal of Political Science25: 462-81.
65.
Jennings, M. Kent, and Norman Thomas.1968. "Men and Women in Party Elites: Social Roles and Political Resources."Midwest Journal of Political Science12: 469-91.
66.
Jensen, Richard.1980. "Armies, Admen and Crusaders." Public Opinion3 (October/November): 44-49, 52-53.
67.
Johnson, Marilyn, and Susan Carroll.1978. "Statistical Report: Profile of Women Holding Office: 1977." In John and Carroll, Women in Public Office . 2nd ed., 1A-68A. Methuchen, NJ : Scarecrow Press.
68.
Kaplan, Abraham.1964. The Conduct of Inquiry. San Francisco : Chandler.
69.
Kayden, Xandra, and Eddie Mahe, Jr. 1985. The Party Goes on United States. New York: Basic Books.
70.
Kendrigan, Mary Lou.1984. Political Equality in a Democratic Society. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
71.
Kirkpatrick, Jeane Jordan.1974. Political Woman. New York: Basic Books.
72.
_. 1976. The New Presidential Elite. New York : Russell Sage.
73.
_. 1979. Dismantling the Parties. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute.
_. 1987. "A Response to Steuernagel." Women and Politics7 (Winter): 15-19.
76.
Kraus, Wilma Rule.1974. "Political Implications of Gender Roles: A Review of the Literature." American Political Science Review68: 1706-23.
77.
Lake, Celinda, and Nikki Heidepriem .1988. "Whatever Happened to the Gender Gap?" Campaign and Elections8: 37-40.
78.
Lamson, Peggy.1968. Few Are Chosen. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
79.
Lancaster, Jane B.1985. "Evolutionary Perspectives on Sex Differences in Higher Primates." In Alice S. Rossi, ed., Gender and the Life Course, pp. 3-27. New York: Aldine.
80.
Lichter, Linda.1985. "Who Speaks for Black America?" Public Opinion8 (August/September), pp. 41-44, 58.
81.
Luker, Kristin.1983. Motherhood and the Politics of Abortion. Berkeley: University of California Press .
82.
McFarland, Andrew S.1984. Common Cause. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House.
83.
McGlen, Nancy E., and Karen O'Connor.1983. Women's Rights. New York: Praeger.
84.
Mandel, Ruth B.1981. In the Running: The New Woman Candidate. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
85.
Mansbridge, Jane J.1986. Why We Lost the ERA. Chicago : University of Chicago Press.
86.
Matlack, Carol M.1988. "Women at the Polls." National Journal , December 19, pp. 3208-15.
87.
Mueller, Carol M.1988. "The Empowerment of Women: Polling and the Women's Voting Bloc." In Carol M. Mueller, ed., The Politics of the Gender Gap, pp. 16-36. Beverly Hills, CA : Sage.
88.
Natchez, Peter B.1985. Images of Voting/Visions of Democracy. New York: Basic Books.
89.
Patterson, Samuel C.1989. "The Persistence of State Parties." In Carl E. Van Horn, ed., The State of the States, pp. 153-74. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
90.
Peterson, Bill.1985. "Reagan Did Understand Women." Washington Post, March 3, p. C5.
91.
Polsby, Nelson.1983a. Consequence of Party Reform. New York : Oxford University Press.
92.
_. 1983b. "The Reform of Presidential Selection and Democratic Theory." P.S.16: 695-98.
93.
Poole, Keith T., and L. Harmon Zeigler .1985. Women, Public Opinion and Politics. New York: Longman.
94.
_. 1985. "Political Woman: Gender Indifference." Public Opinion8 (August/September): 54-57.
95.
_. 1987. "Comment on Steuernagle's 'Reflections on Women and Political Participation.' "Women and Politics7: 29-30.
96.
Popkin, Samuel L.1991. The Reasoning Voter. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
97.
Price, David E.1984. Bringing Back the Parties. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
98.
Ranney, Austin.1975. Curing the Michiefs of Faction. Berkeley : University of California Press.
99.
Rauch, Kate Darby.1992. "Interviews Find Different Take on the Hill-Thomas Controversy ." Washington Post, December 7, p. A3.
100.
Sapiro, Virginia.1981. "Reasearch Frontier Essay: When Are Interests Interesting? The Problem of Political Representation of Women." American Political Science Review75: 701-16.
101.
_. 1983. The Political Integration of WomenUrbana: University of Illinois Press.
102.
_. 1987. "Reflections on Reflections: Personal Ruminations." Women and Politics7: 21-27.
103.
Sapiro, Virginia, and Barbara Farah.1980. "New Pride and Old Prejudice: Political Ambition and Role Orientations Among Female Partisan Elites."Women and Politics1: 13-36.
104.
Schattschneider, Elmer E.1960. The Semi-Sovereign People. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
105.
Schlesinger, Joseph A.1985. "The New American Political Party." American Political Science Review79: 1152-69.
106.
Shafer, Byron E.1983. Quiet Revolution. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
107.
Shanley, Mary, and Victoria Schuck.1975. "In Search of Political Woman." Social Science Quarterly55: 632-44.
108.
Small, Meredith F., ed. 1984. Female Primates: Studies by Women Primatologists. New York : Alan R. Liss.
109.
Smeal, Eleanor.1984. How and Why Women Will Elect the Next President . New York: Harper and Row.
110.
Smith, Bradley A.1991. "Note: Judicial Protection of Ballot-Access Rights: Third Parties Need Not Apply." Harvard Journal on Legislation28: 167-217.
111.
Sorauf, Frank J.1967. "Political Parties and Political Analysis." In William Nisbet Chambers and Walter Dean Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems, pp. 33-55. New York: Oxford University Press.
112.
Steuernagel, Gertrude A.1987. "Reflections on Women and Political Particpation ." Women and Politics7 (Winter): 3-13.
113.
Taylor, Paul.1985. "Black Leaders, Public Differ on Issues." Washington Post, September 16, p. A15.
114.
Ware, Susan.1987. Partner and I: Molly Dewson, and New Deal Politics . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
115.
Werner, Emmy E.1966. "Women in Congress, 1917-1964."Western Political Quarterly19 (March): 16-30.
116.
_. 1968. "Women in State Legislatures."Western Political Quarterly21 (March): 40-50.
117.
White, John.1990. Comments made at a conference held at Ashland University, November 10, "The Future of Political Parties."
118.
Whitehead, Ralph.1985. "More Votes, More Heart."Boston Globe Sunday Magazine. April 14, pp. 10-35.
119.
_. 1988. "The Bright-Collar Boom."Boston Globe Sunday Magazine, January 17, pp. 14-42.
120.
Williams, Eddie.1985. "Responses to Linda Lichter's 'Who Speaks for Black America? ' Public Opinion8 (October/November): 58-60.
121.
Williams, Juan.1985. "Poll Irks Blacks Leaders." Washington Post, September 20, p. A11.
122.
Witt, Evans.1985. "What the Republics Have Learned about Women." Public Opinion8 (October/November): 49-52.
