A Summary of Warnings Research

Adams A. S. Edworthy J. (1995). Quantifying and predicting the effects of basic text display variables on the perceived urgency of warning labels: Tradeoffs involving font size, border weight, and color Ergonomics, 38, 2221–2237.

Alves-Foss J. D. (1995). The effects of pictograph explicitness on hazard perceptions, p. 934.

ANSI (1991, 1998). Accredited standard on safety colors, signs, symbols, labels, and tags, Z535.1 5. Washington, DC: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

Arndt S. R. (1998). Warning labels and accident data, pp. 550–553.

Ayers T.J (1989). What is a warning and when will it work? pp. 426–430.

Barlow C. B. Hammond A.J. (1995). Decision making processes in risky and non-risky consumer product selection, pp. 356–360.

Barlow T. Wogalter M. S. (1993). Alcoholic beverage warnings in magazine and television advertisements Journal of Consumer Research, 20, 147–156.

Barzegar R. S. Wogalter M. S. (1998). Intended carefulness for voiced warning signal words, pp. 1068–1072.

Beltramini R. F. (1988). Perceived believability of warning label information presented in cigarette advertising Journal of Advertising, 17, 26–32.

Belz S. M. (1998). Auditory icons as impending collision system warning signals in commercial motor vehicles, pp. 1127–1131.

Bliss J. P. (1995). Human probability match behavior in response to alarms of varying reliability Ergonomics, 38, 2300–2312.

Bohannon N. K. Young S. L. (1993). Effect of warnings in advertising on adolescents' perceptions of risk for alcohol consumption, pp. 974–978.

Braun C. C. Silver N. C. (1995a). Interaction of signal word and color on warning labels: Differences in perceived hazard and behavioral compliance Ergonomics, 38, 2207–2220.

Braun C. C. Silver N. C. (1995b). Interaction of warning label features: Determining the contributions of three warning characteristics, pp. 984–988.

Braun C. C. (1992). Likelihood of reading warnings: The effect of fonts and font sizes, pp. 926–930.

Braun C. C. (1994). Differences in behavioral compliance as a function of warning color, pp. 379–383.

Braun C. C. (1995). Adding consequence information to product instructions: Changes in hazard perceptions, pp. 346–350.

Bresnahan T. (1985). The hazard association value of safety signs. Professional Safety, 30(7), 26–31.

Brugger C. (1994). Public information symbols: A comparison of ISO testing procedures. In Proceedings of Public Graphics (pp. 26.1–26.10). Utrecht, Netherlands: University of Utrecht, Psychonomics Department.

Bruyas M. P. (1997). Pictorial information on variable message signs: Road safety conditions. In Proceedings of the 13th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (Vol. 3, pp. 308–311). Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Institute of Occupational Health.

Caird J. K. (1997). The comprehensibility of airline safety card pictorials, pp. 801–805.

Chapanis A. (1994). Hazards associated with three signal words and four colours on warning signs. Ergonomics, 37, 265–275.

Chen J. Y. C. Gibson R. D. (1997). Perceived risk dilution with multiple warnings, pp. 831–835.

Cochran D. J. (1981). An investigation of shapes for warning labels, pp. 395–399.

Collins B. L. (1983). Evaluation of mine-safety symbols, pp. 947–949.

Collins B. L. Lerner N. D. (1982). Assessment of fire-safety symbols. Human Factors, 24, 75–84.

Conzola V. C. Klein K. W. (1998). Need for cognition: An individual differences approach to understanding warning effectiveness, pp. 811–815.

Conzola V. C. Wogalter M. S. (1998). Consumer product warnings: Effects of injury statistics on recall and subjective evaluations, pp. 559–563.

Cox E. P. III (1997). Do product warnings increase safe behavior? Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 16(2), 195–204.

DeJoy D. M. (1989). Consumer product warnings: Review and analysis of effectiveness research, pp. 936–940.

Desaulniers D. R. (1987). Layout, organization and the effectiveness of consumer product warnings, pp. 56–60.

Desaulniers D. R. (1989). Consumer products hazards: What will we think of next? In Proceedings of INTERFACE 89 (pp. 115–120). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.

deTurck M. A. Goldhaber G. M. (1988). Consumers' information-processing objectives and effects of product warnings, pp. 445–449.

Dewar R. E. (1976). The slash obscures the symbol on prohibitive traffic signs Human Factors, 18, 253–258.

Dewar R. E. (1994). Design and evaluation of graphic symbols. In Proceedings of Public Graphics (pp. 24.1–24.18). Utrecht, Netherlands: University of Utrecht, Department of Psychonomics.

Dingus T. A. (1991a). A most critical warning variable: Two demonstrations of the powerful effects of cost on warning compliance, pp. 1034–1038.

Dingus T. A. (1991b). Two reasons for providing protective equipment as part of hazardous consumer product packaging, pp. 1039–1042.

Dingus T. A. (1993). Warning variables affecting personal protective equipment use. Safety Science, 16, 655–673.

Donner K. A. Brelsford J. W. (1988). Cuing hazard information for consumer products, pp. 532–535.

Drake K. L. (1996). Signal words: Do definitions correspond to connoted hazard? p. 1281.

Duffy R. R. (1993). The effectiveness of an interactive warning in a realistic product-use situation, pp. 935–939.

Edworthy J. Adams A. (1996). Warning design: A research prospective. London: Taylor & Francis.

Edworthy J. Warren C. A. (1997). The impact of warning color and signal word on children's interpretation of hazard level. In Proceedings of the 13th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (Vol. 3, pp. 312–314). Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Institute of Occupational Health.

Edworthy J. (1991). Improving auditory warning design: Relationships between warning sound parameters and perceived urgency. Human Factors, 33, 205–231.

Edworthy J. (1995). The semantic associations of acoustic parameters commonly used in the design of auditory information and warning signals Ergonomics, 38, 2341–2361.

FMC. (1985). Product safety sign and label system. Santa Clara, CA: FMC Corporation.

Frantz J. P. (1994). Effect of location and procedural explicitness on user processing of and compliance with product warnings Human Factors, 36, 532–546.

Frantz J. P. Rhoades T. P. (1993). A task analytic approach to the temporal placement of product warnings Human Factors, 35, 719–730.

Frantz J. P. (1993). The ability of two lay groups to judge product warning effectiveness, pp. 989–993.

Friedmann K. (1988). The effect of adding symbols to written warning labels on user behavior and recall Human Factors, 30, 507–515.

Gardner-Bonneau D. J. (1989). Cigarette warnings: Recall of content as a function of gender, message context, smoking habits, and time, pp. 928–930.

Gill R. T. (1987). A comparative evaluation of warning label designs, pp. 476–478.

Glover B. L. Wogalter M. S. (1997). Using a computer simulated world to study behavioral compliance with warnings: Effect of salience and gender, pp. 1283–1287.

Glover B. L. (1996). Pictorial negations: Preferences for different circle-slash variations, pp. 910–914.

Godfrey S. S. Laughery K. R. (1984). The biasing effects of product familiarity on consumers' awareness of hazard, pp. 483–486.

Godfrey S. S. (1983). Warning messages: Will the consumer bother to look? pp. 950–954.

Godfrey S. S. (1985). Warnings: Do they make a difference? pp. 669–673.

Godfrey S. S. (1991). The new alcohol warning labels: How noticeable are they? pp. 446–450.

Goldhaber G. M. de Turck M. A. (1988a). Effectiveness of warning signs: Gender and familiarity effects Journal of Products Liability, 11, 271–284.

Goldhaber G. M. deTurck M. A. (1988b). Effects of consumer's familiarity with a product on attention and compliance with warnings Journal of Products Liability, 11, 29–37.

Goldhaber G. M deTurck M. A. (1989). A developmental analysis of warning signs: The case of familiarity and gender, pp. 1019–1023.

Gomer F. E. (1986). Evaluating the effectiveness of warnings under prevailing working conditions, pp. 712–715.

Griffith L. J. Leonard S. D. (1995). Effectiveness of warning labels as a function of visual impressions, p. 931.

Haas E. C Casali J. G. (1993). The perceived urgency and detection time of multi-tone and frequency-modulated warning signals, pp. 544–548.

Haas E. C Casali J. G. (1995). Perceived urgency of and response time to multi-tone and frequency-modulated warning signals in broadband noise Ergonomics, 38, 2313–2326.

Harris J. E. Wiklund M. E. (1989). Consumer acceptance of threatening warnings in the residential environment, pp. 989–993.

Hopkins J Parseghian W. A. (1997). A driving simulator evaluation of active warning signs, pp. 921–925.

Hunn B. P. Dingus T. A. (1992). Interactivity, information, and compliance cost in a consumer product warning scenario Accident Analysis & Prevention, 24, 497–505.

ISO 7001. (1979). Public information symbols index, survey and compilation of the single sheets. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organisation for Standardization.

Jaynes L. S. Boles D. B. (1990). The effect of symbols on warning compliance, pp. 984–987.

Jentsch F. (1996). Understanding of aviation safety pictograms among respondents from Europe and the U.S., pp. 820–824.

Kalsher M. J. Wogalter M. S. (1997). The effects of a raised label border on warning effectiveness measures, pp. 811–815.

Kalsher M.J. (1991). Posted warning placard: Effects on college students knowledge of alcohol facts and hazards, pp. 456–460.

Kalsher M. J. (1992). Connected quantity of food-label modifier terms, pp. 528–532.

Kalsher M.J. (1994). Enhancing the perceived readability of pharmaceutical container labels and warnings: The use of alternative designs and pictorials, pp. 384–388.

Kalsher M. J. (1995). Hazard level perception of current and proposed warning sign and label panels, pp. 351–355.

Kanouse D. E. Hayes-Roth B. (1980). Cognitive considerations in the design of product warnings. In Morris L. A. Product labeling and health risks (Banbury Report 6, pp. 147–163). Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.

Karnes E. W. (1986). Effects of benign experiences on the perception of risk, pp. 121–125.

Kaskutas L. Greenfield T. (1991). Knowledge of warning labels on alcoholic beverage containers, pp. 441–445.

Kline P. B. (1993). The impact of color on warning research, pp. 940–944.

Laner S. Sells R. G. (1960). An experiment on the effects of specially designed safety posters Occupational Psychology, 34, 153–169.

LaRue C Cohen H. H. (1987). Factors affecting consumers' perceptions of product warnings: An examination of the differences between male and female consumers, pp. 610–614.

Laughery K. R. Sr. Stanush J. A. (1989). Effects of warning explicitness on product perceptions, pp. 431–435.

Laughery K. R. Sr. Young S. L. (1991). An eye scan analysis of accessing product warning information, pp. 585–589.

Laughery K. R. Sr. (1991). Effects of explicitness in conveying severity information in product warnings, pp. 481–485.

Laughery K. R. Sr. (1993). Explicitness of consequence information in warnings Safety Science, 16, 597–613.

Laughery K. R. Sr. (1994). Human factors perspectives on warnings. Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.

Laughery K. R. Sr. (1997). Allocation of responsibility for product safety: Warning and severity of injury effects, pp. 543–547.

Laughery K. R. Sr. (1998). Tire rim mismatch explosions: The role of on-product warnings, pp. 1088–1092.

Laux L. Brelsford J. W. (1989). Locus of control, risk perception, and precautionary behavior. In Proceedings of INTERFACE 89 (pp. 121–124). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.

Laux L. (1989). Usefulness of symbols and pictorials to communicate hazard information. In Proceedings of INTERFACE 89 (pp. 79–83). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.

Leonard D. C. (1989). Pest-control products: Reading warnings and purchasing intentions, pp. 436–440.

Leonard S. D. Karnes E. W. (1996). A case study of using human factors analysis on warnings, pp. 525–529.

Leonard S. D. Karnes E. W. (1998). Perception of risk in automobiles: Is it accurate? pp. 1083–1087.

Leonard S. D. Matthews D. (1986). How does the population interpret warning signals? pp. 116–120.

Leonard S. D. (1988). Scale values for warning symbols and words. In Aghazadeh F. Trends in ergonomics/human factors V (pp. 669–674). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Leonard S. D. (1991). Adequacy of responses to warning terms, pp. 1024–1028.

Leonard S. D. (1995). Hazards may result from failure conceptual agreement, p. 931.

Leonard S. D. (1997). Electrical hazards in the home: What do people know? pp. 840–843.

Lerner N. D. Collins B. L. (1980). Evaluation of symbols for fire safety, pp. 484–487.

Magurno A. (1994). Iterative test and development of pharmaceutical pictorials. In Proceedings of the 12th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (Vol. 4, pp. 360–362). Mississauga, Canada: Human Factors Association of Canada.

Mayer D. L. Laux L. F. (1989). Recognizability and effectiveness of warning symbols and pictorials, pp. 984–988.

Mazis M. (1978). Patient attitudes about two forms of printed oral contraceptive information Medical Care, 16, 1045–1054.

McCarthy G. E. (1987). Measured impact of a mandated warning on user behavior, pp. 479–483.

Miller J. M. (1993b). Instructions & warnings – The annotated bibliography: Vol. III. Ann Arbor, MI: Fuller Technical Publications.

Moore J. L. (1990). The effect of hazard and system information on estimated risk, pp. 508–512.

Morrell R. W. (1990). Effects of labeling techniques on memory and comprehension of prescription information in young and old adults Journal of Gerontology, 45, 166–172.

Morrow D. G. (1996). Using icons to convey medication schedule information Applied Ergonomics, 27, 267–275.

Murray L. A. (1998). Prohibitive pictorials: Evaluations of different circle-slash negation symbols International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 22, 473–482.

Nohre L. (1998). The effects of warning false alarms on driving speed, p. 1627.

Otsubo S. M. (1988). A behavioral study of warning labels for consumer products: Perceived dangers and use of pictographs, pp. 536–540.

Patten R. L. (1995). Inadequate warnings on hardware store solvents: The general public does not understand the behavior of flammable vapors, p. 934.

Pollack-Nelson C. (1995). Analysis of methylene chloride product labeling Ergonomics, 38, 2176–2187.

Polzella D.J. (1992). Perceived effectiveness of danger signs: A multivariate analysis, pp. 931–934.

Purswell J. L. (1986). A prediction model for consumer behavior regarding product safety, pp. 1202–1205.

Resnick M. L. (1997). An evaluation of nutrition label quantifier terms: Consumer perceptions vs. FDA definitions, pp. 395.

Resnick M. L. (1998). The effects of four label design parameters on perceived reliability, efficacy and intent to purchase of over-the-counter medication, pp. 546–549.

Resnick M. L. (1997). Cultural differences in the perception of responsibility for child safety, pp. 836–839.

Racicot B. M. Wogalter M. S. (1992). Warning compliance: Effects of a video warning sign and modeling on behavior, pp. 608–610.

Riley M. W. (1982). An investigation of preferred shapes for warning labels Human Factors, 24, 737–742.

Ringseis E. L. Caird J. K. (1995). The comprehensibility and legibility of twenty pharmaceutical warning pictograms, pp. 974–978.

Rodriguez M. A. (1991). What makes a warning label salient? pp. 1029–1033.

Sanders M. S. McCormick E. J. (1993). Human factors in engineering and design (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Schwartz D. R. (1983). The impact of product hazard information on consumer buying decisions: A policy capturing approach, pp. 955–957.

Silver N. C. Braun C. C. (1993). Perceived readability of warning labels with varied font sizes and styles Safety Science, 16, 615–625.

Silver N. C. Perlotto C. N. (1997). Comprehension of aviation safety pictograms: Gender and prior safety card reading influences, pp. 806–810.

Silver N. C. Wogalter M. S. (1989). Broadening the range of signal words, pp. 555–559.

Silver N. C. Wogalter M. S. (1991). Strength and understanding of signal words by elementary and middle school students, pp. 590–594.

Silver N. C. (1993). Connoted strength of signal words by elderly and non-native English speakers, pp. 516–520.

Silver N. C. (1995). Comprehension and perceived quality of warning pictorials, pp. 1057–1061.

Silver N. C. (1998). Comprehensibility of pharmaceutical pictorials among people with mental retardation, pp. 656–660.

Sloan G. Eshelman P. (1981). The development and evaluation of pictographic symbols, pp. 198–202.

Slovic P. (1980). Facts and fears: Understanding perceived risk. In Schwing R. C. Albers W. A. Societal risk assessment: How safe is safe enough? (pp. 181–216). New York: Plenum Press.

Sojourner R. J. Wogalter M. S. (1997). The influence of pictorials on evaluations of prescription medication instructions Drug Information Journal, 31, 963–972.

Sojourner R. J. Wogalter M. S. (1998). The influence of pictorials on the comprehension and recall of pharmaceutical safety and warning information International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics, 2, 93–106.

Strawbridge J. A. (1986). The influence of position, highlighting, and embedding on warning effectiveness, pp. 716–720.

Trommelen M. Akerboom S. (1997). Symbols for child care products. In Proceedings of the 13th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (Vol. 3, 350–352). Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Institute of Occupational Health.

Ursic M. (1984). The impact of safety warnings on perception and memory Human Factors, 26, 677–682.

Vaubel K. P. (1990). Effects of warning explicitness on consumer product purchase intentions, pp. 513–517.

Vaubel K. P. Brelsford J. W. (1991). Product evaluations and injury assessments as related to preferences for explicitness in warnings, pp. 1048–1052.

Vaubel K. P. Young S. L. (1992). Components of perceived risk for consumer products, pp. 494–498.

Vigilante W. J. Wogalter M. S. (1997a). On the prioritization of safety warnings in product manuals International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 20, 277–285.

Vigilante W. J. Wogalter M. S. (1997b). The preferred order of over-the-counter (OTC) pharmaceutical label components Drug Informational Journal, 31, 973–988.

Vigilante W. J. Wogalter M. S. (1998). Product manual safety warnings: The effects of ordering, pp. 593–597.

Vredenburgh A. G. Cohen H. H. (1993). Compliance with warnings in high-risk recreational activities: Skiing and scuba, pp. 945–949.

Vukelich M. Whitaker L. A. (1993). The effects of context on the comprehension of graphic symbols, pp. 511–515.

Westinghouse (1981). Product safety label handbook. Trafford, PA: Westinghouse Printing Division.

Wogalter M. S. Barlow T. (1990). Injury severity and likelihood in warnings, pp. 580–583.

Wogalter M. S. Brelsford J. W. (1994). Incidental exposure to rotating warnings on alcoholic beverage labels, pp. 374–378.

Wogalter M. S. Laughery K. R. (1996). WARNING! Sign and label effectiveness Current Directions in Psychology, 5, 33–37.

Wogalter M. S. Leonard S. D. (in press). Factors that influence warning salience/attention-gettingness. In Wogalter M. S. DeJoy D. M. Laughery K. R. Warnings and risk communication. London: Taylor & Francis.

Wogalter M. S. Rashid R. (1998). A border surrounding a warning sign affects looking behavior: A field observational study, p. 1628.

Wogalter M. S. Silver N. C. (1990). Arousal strength of signal words Forensic Reports, 3, 407–420.

Wogalter M. S. Silver N. C. (1995). Warning signal words: Connoted strength and understandability by children, elders, and non-native English speakers Ergonomics, 38, 2188–2206.

Wogalter M. S. Young S. L. (1994). Enhancing warning compliance through alternative product label designs Applied Ergonomics, 25, 53–57.

Wogalter M. S. (1985a). Behavioral effectiveness of warnings, p. 679–683.

Wogalter M. S. (1985b). Perceived effectiveness of environmental warnings, 664–668.

Wogalter M. S. (1986). Perceptions of consumer products: Hazardousness and warning expectations, pp. 1197–1201.

Wogalter M. S. (1987a). Consumer products: How are the hazards perceived? pp. 615–619.

Wogalter M. S. (1987b). Effectiveness of warnings Human Factors, 29, 599–612.

Wogalter M. S. (1988). Warning compliance: Behavioral effects of cost and consensus, pp. 901–904.

Wogalter M. S. (1989). Effects of cost and social influence on warning compliance Human Factors, 31, 133–140.

Wogalter M. S. (1991a). Consumer product warnings: The role of hazard perception Journal of Safety Research, 22, 71–82.

Wogalter M. S. (1991b). Evaluating the behavioral effectiveness of a multimodal voice warning sign in a visually cluttered environment, pp. 718–722.

Wogalter M. S. (1992b). The influence of location and pictorials on behavioral compliance to warnings, pp. 1029–1033.

Wogalter M. S. (1993a). Behavioral compliance to personalized warning signs and the role of perceived relevance, pp. 950–954.

Wogalter M. S. (1993b). Behavioral compliance with warnings: Effects of voice, context, and location Safety Science, 16, 637–654.

Wogalter M. S. (1993c). Risk perception of common consumer products: Judgments of accident frequency and precautionary intent Journal of Safety Research, 24, 97–106.

Wogalter M. S. (1994). Influence of warning label signal words on perceived hazard level Human Factors, 36, 547–556.

Wogalter M. S. (1995a). Compliance to owner's manual warnings: Influence of familiarity and the placement of a supplemental directive Ergonomics, 38, 1081–1091.

Wogalter M. S. (1995b). Hazard associations of warning header components, pp. 979–983.

Wogalter M. S. (1997a). Comprehension and retention of safety pictorials Ergonomics, 40, 531–542.

Wogalter M. S. (1997b). Connoted hazard of Spanish and English warning signal words, colors, and symbols by native Spanish language users. In Proceedings of the 13th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (Vol. 3, pp. 353–355). Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Institute of Occupational Health.

Wogalter M. S. (1997c). Effect of container shape on hazard perceptions, pp. 390–394.

Wogalter M. S. (1997d). Effect of source attribution on judgments of warning credibility and compliance likelihood. In Das B. Karwowski W. Advances in occupational ergonomics and safety: Vol. II (pp. 451–454). Louisville, KY: IOS Press.

Wogalter M. S. (1998a). Effects of warning quality and expert testimony on allocation of responsibility for consumer product accidents, pp. 665–669.

Wogalter M. S. (1998b). Hazard level perceptions of warning components and configurations International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics, 2, 123–143.

Wogalter M. S. (1998c). The influence of time stress and location on behavioral compliance Safety Science, 29, 143–158.

Wogalter M. S. (in press). Enhancing information acquisition for over-the-counter medications by making better use of container surface space. Experimental Aging Research.

Wolff J. S. Wogalter M. S. (1993). Test and development of pharmaceutical pictorials. In Proceedings of INTERFACE 93 (pp. 187–192). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.

Young S. L. (1991). Increasing the noticeability of warnings: Effects of pictorial, color, signal icon and border, pp. 580–584.

Young S. L. (1997). The role of pictorials in environmental safety signs, pp. 797–800.

Young S. L. (1998). Relative importance of different verbal components in conveying hazard-level information in warnings, pp. 1063–1067.

Young S. L. Wogalter M. S. (1988). Memory of instruction manual warnings: Effect of pictorial icons and conspicuous print, pp. 905–909.

Young S. L. Wogalter M. S. (1990). Comprehension and memory of instruction manual warnings: Conspicuous print and pictorial icons Human Factors, 32, 637–649.

Young S. L. (1989). Gender differences in consumer product hazard perceptions. In Proceedings of INTERFACE 89 (pp. 73–78). Santa Monica, CA: SAGE Publications.

Young S. L. (1990). Judgments of hazard, risk, and danger: Do they differ? pp. 503–507.

Young S. L. (1992a). Relative contribution of likelihood and severity of injury to risk perception, pp. 1014–1018.

Young S. L. (1992b). Effects of two type density characteristics on the legibility of print, pp. 504–508.

Young S. L. (1995). Relative order and space allocation of message components in hazard warning signs, pp. 969–973.

Zlotnik M. A. (1982). The effects of warning message highlighting on novel assembly task performance, pp. 93–97.

Zobel G. P. (1998). Warning tone selection for a reverse parking aid system, pp. 1242–1246.

Zwaga H. J. G. (1989). Comprehensibility estimates of public information symbols: Their validity and use, pp. 979–983.