Violence is a pervasive force in the lives of children in the United States; too often children have been victims of violence or witnesses to violence in their own homes. Although there is broad acknowledgment that these children are at risk for psychological, behavioral, and social maladjustment, the empirical basis for this has not always been recognized. This article provides a review and summary of the empirical research literature related to the question What effects does violence in the home have on children's emotional, behavioral, and social functioning? The evidence from these studies appears to support the conclusion that children who are victims or witnesses to violence in the home are at risk for experiencing both behavioral and emotional problems and somewhat at risk for impaired social functioning. Findings from experimental research are discussed in the context of additional data sources and considerations for future research.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abidin, R. R. (1986). Parenting stress index (2nd ed.). Charlottesville, VA: Pediatric Psychology Press
2.
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. (1980). Child behavior checklist.Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
3.
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. (1986). Manual for the Teacher's Report Form and teacher's version of the Child Behavior Profile.Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
4.
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. (1987). Manual for the Youth Self-Report and Profile.Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
5.
Alessandri, S. M. (1991). Play and social behavior in maltreated preschoolers. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 191–205.
6.
Allen, D. M., & Tarnowski, K. J. (1989). Depressive characteristics of physically abused children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 1–11.
7.
Alpern, G. D., & Boll, T. J. (1973). Developmental profile.Indianapolis, IN: Psychological Development Publications.
8.
American Psychological Association. (1996). Violence and the family: Report of the American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Violence and the Family.Washington, DC: Author.
9.
Azar, S. T., Barnes, K. T., & Twentyman, C. T. (1988). Developmental outcomes in abused children: Consequences of parental abuse or a more general breakdown in caregiver behavior?. Behavior Therapist, 11, 27–32.
10.
Azar, S. T., & Siegel, B. R. (1990). Behavioral treatment of child abuse: A developmental perspective. Behavior Modification, 14, 279–300.
11.
Bach-y-Rita, G., & Veno, A. (1974). Habitual violence: A profile of 62 men. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131(9), 1015–1017.
12.
Barth, R. (1991). An experimental evaluation of in-home child abuse prevention services. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15, 363–375.
13.
Bates, J. E., Bayles, K., Bennett, D. S., Ridge, B., & Brown, M. M. (1991). Origins of externalizing behavior problems at eight years of age. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 93–120). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
14.
Behar, L., & Stringfield, S. A. (1974). A behavior rating scale for the preschool child. Developmental Psychology, 10, 5.
15.
Bellak, L., & Adelman, C. (1960). The children's apperception test. In A. I. Rabin & M. R. Haworth (Eds.), Projective techniques with children.New York: Grune & Stratton.
16.
Berkowitz, L. (1983). The goals of aggression. In D. Finkelhor, R. J. Gelles, G. T. Hotaling, & M. A. Straus (Eds.), The dark side of families: Current family violence research (pp. 166–181). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
17.
Block, J. (1971). Lives through time.Berkeley, CA: Bancroft Books.
18.
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1969). The California child Q set.Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley, Institute of Human Development.
19.
Browne, A., & Finkelhor, D. (1986). Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 6–76.
20.
Bruininks, R. H. (1978). Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency: Examiner's manual.Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
21.
Bruininks, R. H., Woodcock, R. W., Weatherman, R. F., & Hill, B. K. (1984). Scales of independent behavior: Woodcock-Johnson psychoeducational battery, Part IV. Allen, TX: DLM Teacher Resources.
22.
Brunk, M., Henggeler, S. W., & Whelan, J. P. (1987). Comparison of multisystemic therapy and parent training in the brief treatment of child abuse and neglect. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 171–178.
23.
Cappell, C., & Heiner, R. B. (1990). The intergenerational transmission of family aggression. Journal of Family Violence, 5(2), 135–152.
24.
Carlson, B. E. (1984). Children's observations of interparental violence. In A. R. Roberts (Ed.), Battered women and their families (pp. 147–167). New York: Springer.
25.
Carlson, B. E. (1990). Adolescent observers of marital violence. Journal of Family Violence, 5(4), 285–299.
26.
Carlson, B., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1989). Disorganized/disoriented attachment relationships in maltreated infants. Developmental Psychology, 25, 525–531.
27.
Cassel, R. N. (1962). The child behavior rating scale.Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
28.
Christopoulos, C., Cohn, D. A., Shaw, D. S., Joyce, S., Sullivan-Hanson, J., Kraft, S. P., & Emery, R. E. (1987). Children of abused women: I. Adjustment at time of shelter residence. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 49, 611–619.
29.
Cicchetti, D. (1987). Developmental psychopathology in infancy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 837–845.
30.
Cichetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry, 56, 96–118.
31.
Cohen, H., & Weil, G. (1971). Tasks of emotional development test.Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.
32.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem.San Francisco: Freeman Press.
33.
Cummings, E. M., & Cummings, J. S. (1988). A process-oriented approach to children's coping with adults' angry behavior. Developmental Review, 8, 296–321.
34.
Daro, D. (1988). Confronting child abuse: Research for effective program design.New York: Free Press.
35.
Daro, D. (1993). Child maltreatment research: Implications for program design. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth (Eds.), Child abuse, child development, and social policy: Advances in applied developmental psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 331–367). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
36.
Dodge, D. T. (1995). Foreword. In R. G. Slaby, W. C. Roedell, D. Arezzo, & K. Hendrix (Eds.), Early violence prevention: Tools for teachers of young children (p. vii). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
37.
Dodge, K. A. (1993). The future of research on the treatment of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 311–319.
38.
Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Petit, G. S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 1678–1683.
39.
Dunn, L. M. (1965). Peabody picture vocabulary test.Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service, Inc.
40.
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. (1981). Peabody picture vocabulary test—Revised.Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service, Inc.
41.
Dutton, D. G., & Hart, S. D. (1992). Evidence for long-term, specific effects of childhood abuse and neglect on criminal behavior in men. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 36, 129–137.
42.
Egeland, B., Sroufe, A., & Erickson, M. A. (1983). The developmental consequence of different patterns of maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7, 459–469.
43.
Elmer, E. (1978). Effects of early neglect and abuse on latency age children. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 3, 14–19.
44.
Emery, R. E. (1989). Family violence. American Psychologist, 44, 321–328.
45.
Eyberg, S. M., & Ross, A. W. (1978). Assessment of child behavior problems: The validation of a new inventory. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 7, 113–117.
46.
Fagan, J., & Wexler, S. (1987). Family origins of violent delinquents. Criminology, 25, 643–669.
47.
Fantuzzo, J. W. (1990). Behavioral treatment of the victims of child abuse and neglect. Behavior Modification, 14, 316–339.
48.
Fantuzzo, J. W., DePaola, L. M., Lambert, L., Martino, T., Anderson, G., & Sutton, S. (1991). Effects of interparental violence on the psychological adjustment and competencies of young children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(2), 258–265.
49.
Fantuzzo, J. W., Jurecic, L., Stovall, A., Hightower, A. D., & Goins, C. (1988). Effects of adult and peer social initiations on the social behavior of withdrawn, maltreated preschool children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 34–39.
50.
Fantuzzo, J. W., & Lindquist, C. U. (1989). The effects of observing conjugal violence on children: A review and analysis of research methodology. Journal of Family Violence, 4(1), 77–94.
51.
Feldman, R. S., Salzinger, S., Rosario, M., Alvarado, L., Caraballo, L., & Hammer, M. (1995). Parent, teacher, and peer ratings of physically abused and nonmal-treated children's behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 317–334.
52.
Feshbach, N. D., & Roe, K. (1968). Empathy in six- and seven-year-olds. Child Development, 39, 133–145.
53.
Finkelhor, D. (1995). The victimization of children: A developmental perspective. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65, 177–193.
54.
Forsstrom-Cohen, B., & Rosenbaum, A. (1985). The effects of parental marital violence on young adults: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47, 467–472.
55.
Friedrich, W. N., Enbender, A. J., & Luecke, W. J. (1983). Cognitive and behavioral characteristics of physically abused children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 313–314.
56.
Frodi, A. M., & Smetana, J. (1984). Abused, neglected, and nonmaltreated preschoolers' ability to discriminate emotions in others: The effects of IQ. Child Abuse and Neglect, 8, 459–465.
57.
Garbarino, J., & Abramowitz, R. H. (1992). Sociocultural risk and opportunity. In J. Garbarino (Ed.), Children and families in the social environment (pp. 35–70). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
58.
Garbarino, J., & Kostelny, K. (1992). Child maltreatment as a community problem. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16, 455–462.
59.
Geffner, R., Rosenbaum, A., & Hughes, H. (1988). Research issues concerning family violence. In V. B. Van Hasselt, R. Morrison, A. Bellack, & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of family violence (pp. 457–482). New York: Plenum.
60.
Gelles, R. J., & Straus, M. A. (1990). The medical and psychological costs of family violence. In M. A. Straus & R. J. Gelles (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families (pp. 425–430). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press.
61.
George, C., & Main, M. (1979). Social interactions of young abused children: Approach, avoidance, and aggression. Child Development, 50, 306–318.
62.
Greene, M. B. (1993). Chronic exposure to violence and poverty: Interventions that work for youth. Crime and Delinquency, 39, 106–124.
63.
Grizenko, N., & Pawliuk, N. (1994). Risk and protective factors for disruptive behavior disorders in children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 64, 534–544.
64.
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 267–290.
65.
Guterman, N. B. (1997). Early prevention of physical child abuse and neglect: Existing evidence and future directions. Child Maltreatment, 2, 12–34.
66.
Hanson, M. J., & Carta, J. J. (1995). Addressing the challenges of families with multiple risks. Exceptional Children, 62, 201–212.
67.
Harter, S. (1982). The perceived competence scale for children. Child Development, 53, 87–97.
68.
Harter, S., & Pike, R. (1984). The pictorial scale of perceived competence and social acceptance for young children. Child Development, 55, 260–266.
69.
Herrenkohl, R. C., Herrenkohl, E. C., Egolf, B. P., & Wu, P. (1991). The developmental consequences of child abuse: The Lehigh longitudinal study.Washington, DC: National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect.
70.
Hersen, M., & Ammerman, R. T. (1990). Future directions in research. In R. T. Ammerman & M. Hersen (Eds.), Treatment of family violence (pp. 425–437). New York: Wiley.
71.
Hershorn, M., & Rosenbaum, A. (1985). Children of marital violence: A closer look at the unintended victims. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55(2), 260–266.
72.
Hilberman, E., & Munson, K. (1979). Sixty battered women. Victimology, 2, 460–470.
73.
Hinchey, F. S., & Gavelek, J. R. (1982). Empathic responding in children of battered mothers. Child Abuse and Neglect, 6, 395–401.
74.
Hodges, K. (1987). Assessing children with a clinical research interview: Child assessment schedule. Advances in Behavioral Assessment of Children and Families, 3, 203–233.
75.
Hoffman-Plotkin, D., & Twentyman, C. T. (1984). A multimodal assessment of behavioral and cognitive deficits in abused and neglected preschoolers. Child Development, 55, 794–802.
76.
Holden, G. W., & Ritchie, K. L. (1991). Linking extreme marital discord, child rearing, and child behavior problems: Evidence from battered women. Child Development, 62, 311–327.
77.
Howing, P. T., Wodarski, J. S., Kurtz, P. D., Gaudin, J. M., Jr., & Herbst, E. N. (1990). Child abuse and delinquency: The empirical and theoretical links. Social Work, 35, 244–249.
78.
Hughes, H. M. (1986). Research with children in shelters: Implications for clinical services. Children Today, 15(2), 21–25.
79.
Hughes, H. M. (1988). Psychological and behavioral correlates of family violence in child witnesses and victims. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 58(1), 77–90.
80.
Hughes, H. M., Parkinson, D., & Vargo, M. (1989). Witnessing spouse abuse and experiencing physical abuse: A “double whammy”?. Journal of Family Violence, 4(2), 197–209.
81.
Jaffe, P., Wilson, S., & Wolfe, D. A. (1986). Promoting changes in attitudes and understandings of conflict resolution among child witnesses of family violence. Canadian Journal of Behavior Science, 18, 356–366.
82.
Jaffe, P. G., Wolfe, D. A., & Wilson, S. K. (1990). Children of battered women.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
83.
Jaffe, P., Wolfe, D., Wilson, S. K., & Zak, L. (1986a). Family violence and child adjustment: A comparative analysis of girls' and boys' behavioral symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143(1), 74–77.
84.
Jaffe, P., Wolfe, D., Wilson, S., & Zak, L. (1986b). Similarities in behavioral and social maladjustment among child victims and witnesses to family violence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 56(1), 142–146.
85.
Jesness, C. F. (1983). Manual: The Jesness inventory.Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
86.
Jouriles, E. N., Barling, J., & O'Leary, K. D. (1987). Predicting child behavior problems in maritally violent families. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15(2), 165–173.
87.
Kaiser, A. P., & Hester, P. P. (1997). Prevention of conduct disorder through early intervention: A social-communicative perspective. Behavioral Disorders, 22, 117–130.
88.
Kalmuss, D. (1984). The intergenerational transmission of marital aggression. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46(2), 11–19.
89.
Kazdin, A. E. (1993). Treatment of conduct disorder: Progress and directions in psychotherapy research. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 277–310.
90.
Kazdin, A. E., French, M. H., Unis, A. S., Esveldt-Dawson, K., & Sherrick, R. B. (1983). Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among psychiatrically disturbed inpatient children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 504–510.
91.
Kazdin, A. E., Moser, J., Colbus, D., & Bell, R. (1985). Depressive symptoms among physically abused and psychiatrically disturbed children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94, 298–307.
92.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Saunders, B. E., Vernon, L. J., Best, C. L., & Von, J. M. (1987). Criminal victimization: Lifetime prevalence, reporting to police, and psychological impact. Crime and Delinquency, 33, 479–489.
93.
Kinard, E. M. (1980). Emotional development in physically abused children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 50, 686–696.
94.
Kinard, E. M. (1982). Aggression in abused children: Differential responses to the Rosenzweig picture-frustration study. Journal of Personality Assessment, 46, 139–141.
95.
Kinard, E. M. (1985). Ethical issues in research with abused children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 9, 301–311.
96.
Kolbo, J. R., Blakely, E. H., & Engleman, D. (1996). Children who witness domestic violence: A review of the empirical literature. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11, 281–293.
97.
Kolko, D. J. (1992). Characteristics of child victims of physical violence: Research findings and clinical implications. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7, 244–276.
98.
Koop, C. E., & Lundberg, G. D. (1992). Violence in America: A public health emergency. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267, 3075–3076.
99.
Koski, P. R. (1986). Parent—parent versus parent—child violence for adult offenders. Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology, 14(1), 51–55.
100.
Kovacs, M., & Beck, A. T. (1977). An empirical—clinical approach toward a definition of childhood depression. In J. G. Schulterbrandt & A. Raskin (Eds.), Depression in childhood: Diagnosis, treatment, and conceptual models (pp. 1–25). New York: Raven Press.
101.
Kravic, J. N. (1987). Behavior problems and social competence of clinic-referred abused children. Journal of Family Violence, 2, 111–120.
102.
Kurtz, P. D., Gaudin, J. M., Jr., Wodarski, J. S., & Howing, P. T. (1993). Maltreatment and the school-aged child: School performance consequences. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 581–589.
103.
Lamphear, V. S. (1985). The impact of maltreatment on children's psychosocial adjustment: A review of the research. Child Abuse and Neglect, 9, 251–263.
104.
Layzer, J., Goodson, B., & de Lange, C. (1986). Children in shelters. Response, 9, 2–5.
105.
Lewis, D. O., Shanok, S. S., Pincus, J. H., & Glaser, G. H. (1979). Violent juvenile delinquents: Psychiatric, neurological, psychological and abuse factors. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 18, 307–319.
106.
Locke, H., & Wallace, K. (1959). Short marital adjustment and prediction tests: Their reliability and validity. Marriage and Family Living, 21, 251–255.
107.
Lutzker, J., & Rice, J. (1987). Using recidivism data to evaluate Project 12-Ways: An eco-behavioral approach to the treatment and prevention of child abuse and neglect. Journal of Family Violence, 2, 283–290.
108.
Main, M., & George, C. (1985). Responses of abused and disadvantaged toddlers to distress in agemates studied in the day care setting. Developmental Psychology, 21, 407–412.
109.
Mangold, W. D., & Koski, P. R. (1990). Gender comparisons in the relationship between parental and sibling violence and nonfamily violence. Journal of Family Violence, 5(31), 225–235.
110.
Margolin, L. (1990). Child abuse by babysitters. Journal of Family Violence, 5, 95–107.
111.
Martin, R. P. (1988). The temperament assessment battery for children.Brandon, VT: Clinical Psychology Publishing.
112.
McCord, J. (1983). A forty year perspective on the effects of child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7, 265–270.
113.
McDaniel, E. D., & Piers, E. (1976). The McDaniel-Piers young children's self-concept scale. In O. G. Joungson (Ed.), Tests and measurements in child development: Handbook II (Vol. 2, pp. 1101–1102). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
114.
Moeller, T. P., Bachmann, G. A., & Moeller, J. R. (1993). The combined effects of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse during childhood: Long-term health consequences for women. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 623–640.
115.
Murray, H. A. (1943). Thematic Apperception Test.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
116.
Nowicki, S., & Strickland, B. R. (1973). A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40, 1–8.
117.
O'Keefe, M. (1994). Racial/ethnic differences among battered women and their children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 3, 283–305.
118.
O'Keefe, M. (1995). Predictors of child abuse in maritally violent families. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10(1), 3–25.
119.
O'Leary, K., & Turkewitz, H. (1978). Methodological errors in marital and child research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 747–758.
120.
Orvaschel, H., Puig-Antich, P., Chambers, W., & Abrizi, M. (1982). Retrospective assessment of prepubertal major depression with the Kiddie SADS. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 392–397.
121.
Osofsky, J. (1994). Introduction. In J. Osofsky & E. Fenichel (Eds.), Caring for infants and toddlers in violent environments: Hurt, healing & hope (pp. 3–6). Arlington, VA: Zero to Three, National Center for Clinical Infant Programs.
122.
Ostrosky, M. M., & Kaiser, A. P. (1995). The effects of peer mediated intervention on the social communicative interactions between children with and without special needs. Journal of Behavioral Education, 5, 151–171.
123.
Pagelow, M. D. (1990). Effects of domestic violence on children and their consequences for custody and visitation agreements. Mediation Quarterly, 7, 347–363.
124.
Patterson, G. R., DeBarysche, B. D., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 44, 329–335.
125.
Pelcovitz, D., Kaplan, S., Goldenberg, B., Mandel, F., Lehane, J., & Guarrera, J. (1994). Post-traumatic stress disorder in physically abused adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 305–312.
126.
Peled, E., Jaffe, P. G., & Edleson, J. L. (Eds.). (1995). Ending the cycle of violence: Community responses to children of battered women.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
127.
Perry, M. A., Doran, L. D., & Wells, E. A. (1983). Developmental and behavioral characteristics of the physically abused child. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 12, 320–324.
128.
Petti, T. A. (1978). Depression in hospitalized child psychiatry patients: Approaches to measuring depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 17, 49–59.
129.
Pfouts, J. H., Schopler, J. H., & Henley, H. C., Jr. (1982). Forgotten victims of family violence. Social Work, 27, 367–368.
130.
Pianta, R., Egeland, B., & Erickson, M. F. (1989). The antecedents of maltreatment: Results of the mother—child interaction research project. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 203–253). New York: Cambridge University Press.
131.
Piers, E. V., & Harris, D. B. (1969). The Piers-Harris self-concept scale.Nashville, TN: Counselor Recording and Tests.
132.
Quay, H. C., & Peterson, D. R. (1967). Manual for the Behavior Problem Checklist.Champaign: University of Illinois, Children's Research Center.
133.
Reidy, T. J. (1977). The aggressive characteristics of abused and neglected children. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, 1140–1145.
134.
Reynolds, C., & Richmond, B. (1984). Manual for the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale.Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
135.
Rimza, M. E., & Niggermann, M. S. (1982). Medical evaluation of sexually abused children: A review of 311 cases. Pediatrics, 69, 8–14.
136.
Rosenbaum, A., & O'Leary, K. D. (1981). Children: The unintended victims of marital violence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 51(4), 692–699.
137.
Rosenberg, M. S. (1987). Children of battered women: The effects of witnessing violence on their social problem-solving abilities. The Behavior Therapist, 10(4), 85–89.
138.
Rosenzweig, S., Fleming, E. F., & Rosenzweig, L. (1948). The children's form of the Rosenzweig picture-frustration study.Provincetown, MA: Journal Press.
139.
Rounsaville, B. J. (1978). Theories in marital violence: Evidence from a study of battered women. Victimology, 3(1–2), 11–31.
140.
Rous, B., Hemmeter, M. L., & Schuster, J. (1994). Sequence transition to education in the public schools: A systems approach to transition planning. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 14, 374–393.
141.
Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598–611.
142.
Schene, P. (1987). Is child abuse decreasing?. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2, 225–227.
143.
Sedlak, A. J., & Broadhurst, D. D. (1996). Executive summary of the Third National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect.Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
144.
Silvern, L., & Kaersvang, L. (1989). The traumatized children of violent marriages. Child Welfare, 63, 421–436.
145.
Slaby, R. G., Roedell, W. C., Arezzo, D., & Hendrix, K. (1995). Early violence prevention: Tools for teachers of young children.Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
146.
Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B., Gibbon, M. (1987). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R.New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute.
147.
Stark, E., & Flitcraft, A. H. (1988). Women and children at risk: A feminist perspective on child abuse. International Journal of Health Services, 18, 97–118.
148.
Sternberg, K. J., Lamb, M. E., Greenbaum, C., Cicchetti, D., Dawud, S., Cortes, R. M., Krispin, O., & Lorey, F. (1993). Effects of domestic violence on children's behavior problems and depression. Developmental Psychology, 29(1), 44–52.
149.
Straker, G., & Jacobson, R. S. (1981). Aggression, emotional maladjustment, and empathy in the abused child. Developmental Psychology, 17, 762–765.
150.
Straus, M. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The conflict tactics (CT) scales. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41(2), 75–88.
151.
Straus, M. A. (1991). Children as witnesses to marital violence: A risk factor for lifelong problems among a nationally representative sample of American men and women. Children and violence: Report of the Twenty-third Ross Roundtable on Critical Approaches to Common Pediatric Problems.Columbus, OH: Ross Laboratories.
152.
Straus, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. (1988). How violent are American families? Estimates from the National Family Violence Re-survey and other studies. In G. T. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. T. Kirkpatrick, & M. A. Straus (Eds.), Family abuse and its consequences: New directions in research (pp. 14–36). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
153.
Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., & Steinmetz, S. K. (1980). Behind closed doors.Garden City, NY: Anchor.
154.
Stroul, B. A., & Friedman, R. M. (1986). A system of care for severely emotionally disturbed children and youth.Washington, DC: Georgetown University Child Development Center, National Technical Assistance Center for Children's Mental Health.
155.
Terr, L. C. (1988). What happens to the memories of early childhood trauma?. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 23, 668–674.
156.
Terr, L. C. (1991). Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 18–28.
157.
Toth, S. L., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (1992). Child maltreatment and vulnerability to depression. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 97–112.
158.
Trickett, P. K. (1993). Maladaptive development of school-aged, physically abused children: Relationships with the child-rearing context. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 134–147.
159.
Trickett, P. K., & Kuczynski, L. (1986). Children's misbehaviors and parental discipline strategies in abusive and non-abusive families. Developmental Psychology, 22, 115–123.
160.
Trupin, E. W., Tarico, V. S., Low, B. P., Jemelka, R., & McClellan, J. (1993). Children on child protective service caseloads: Prevalence and nature of serious emotional disturbance. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 345–355.
161.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1996). Child maltreatment 1994: Reports from the states to the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect.Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
162.
U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1992). Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics (NJC Publication No. 137369). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
163.
Walker, H. M., Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Bullis, M., Sprague, J. R., Bricker, D., & Kaufman, M. J. (1996). Integrated approaches to preventing antisocial behavior patterns among school-age children and youth. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4, 194–209.
164.
Walker, L. (1984). The battered woman syndrome.New York: Springer.
165.
Wechsler, D. (1974). Wechsler intelligence scale for children—Revised.San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
166.
Werner, E. E. (1989). High-risk children in young adulthood: A longitudinal study from birth to 32 years. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 72–81.
167.
Westra, B. (1984). Nursing care of children of violent families. In J. Campbell & J. Humphreys (Eds.), Nursing care of victims of family violence (pp. 315–339). Reston, VA: Springer.
168.
Westra, B., & Martin, H. P. (1981). Children of battered women. Maternal—Child Nursing Journal, 10, 41–54.
169.
Widom, C. S. (1988). Sampling biases and implication for child abuse research. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 58, 260–270.
170.
Widom, C. S. (1989a). Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 3–28.
171.
Widom, C. S. (1989b). Child abuse, neglect, and violent criminal behavior. Criminology, 27, 251–271.
172.
Wildin, S. R., Williamson, W. D., & Wilson, G. S. (1991). Children of battered women: Developmental and learning profiles. Clinical Pediatrics, 30(5), 299–304.
173.
Wimberger, H. C., & Gregory, R. J. (1968). A behavior checklist for use in child psychiatry clinics. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1, 677–688.
174.
Wolfe, D. A., Jaffe, P., Wilson, S. K., & Zak, L. (1985). Children of battered women: The relation of child behavior to family and maternal stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(5), 657–665.
175.
Wolfe, D. A., Jaffe, P., Wilson, S. K., & Zak, L. (1988). A multivariate investigation of children's adjustment to family violence. In G. T. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. Kirkpatrick, & M. A. Straus (Eds.), Family abuse and its consequences: New directions in research (pp. 228–241). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
176.
Wolfe, D. A., & Mosk, M. D. (1983). Behavioral comparisons of children from abusive and distressed families. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 702–708.
177.
Wolfe, D. A., Zak, L., Wilson, S., & Jaffe, P. (1986). Child witnesses to violence between parents: Critical issues in behavioral and social adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14(1), 95–104.
178.
Youngblade, L. M., & Belsky, J. (1990). Social and emotional consequences of child maltreatment. In R. T. Ammerman & M. Hersen (Eds.), Children at risk: An evaluation of factors contributing to child abuse and neglect (pp. 109–140). New York: Plenum.
179.
Zuravin, S. J. (1989). Severity of maternal depression and three types of mother-to-child aggression. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 377–389.
