Evaluation of the overlap in symptomatology of depressed, anxious, and depressed and anxious children is described. Fifty-nine children from grades 4 through 7, including 14 who received a DSM-III-R diagnosis of a depressive disorder, 11 with a diagnosis of an anxiety disorder, 16 with a comorbid depressive and anxiety disorder, and 18 nondisturbed controls, completed the Children's Depression Inventory, Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, Hopelessness Scale for Children, and Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Diagnoses were determined by the children's responses to a well-respected semi-structured clinical interview. Results indicated that all three diagnostic groups differed significantly from the non-disturbed controls across all of the self-report paper-and-pencil measures. However, in general, the three diagnostic groups could not be differentiated based on their responses to these measures. Implications for the negative affectivity hypothesis and future research are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Achenbach, T.M., & Edelbrock, C.S. (1984). Psychopathology of childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 35, 227–256.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder. (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
3.
American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder. (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
4.
Ambrosini, P.J., Metz, C., Prabucki, K., & Lee, J. (1989). Videotape reliability of the third revised edition of the K-SADS. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 723–728.
5.
Apter, A., Orvaschel, H., Laseg, M., Moses, T., & Tyano, S. (1989). Psychometric properties of K-SADS-P in an Israeli adolescent inpatient population. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 61–65.
6.
Asarnow, J., Carlson, G.A., & Guthrie, D. (1987). Coping strategies, self-perceptions, hopelessness, and perceived family environments in depressed and suicidal children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 1–6.
7.
Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
8.
Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: International Universities Press.
9.
Beck, A. T., Weissman, A., Lester, D., & Trexler, L. (1974). The measurement of pessimism: The hopelessness scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 861–865.
10.
Blechman, E.A., McEnroe, M.J., Carella, E. T., & Audette, D.P. (1986). Childhood competence and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 223–227.
11.
Brady, E.U., & Kendall, P.C. (1992). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 244–255.
12.
Cicchetti, D., & Schneider-Rosen, K. (1986). An organizational approach to childhood depression. In M. Rutter, C.E. Izard, & P.B. Read (Eds.), Depression in young people: Developmental and clinical perspective. (pp. 71–135). New York: Guilford.
13.
Cole, P.M., & Kaslow, N.J. (1988). Interactional and cognitive strategies for affect regulation: Developmental perspective on childhood depression. In L.B. Alloy (Ed.), Cognitive processes in depressio. (pp. 310–343). New York: Guilford.
14.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: Freeman.
15.
Coopersmith, S. (1975). Self Esteem Inventory Form B. Lafayett., CA: Self Esteem Institute.
16.
Ingram, R.E., & Kendall, P.C. (1987). The cognitive side of anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11, 523–536.
17.
Kaslow, N.J., & Racusin, G.R. (1990). Childhood depression: Current status and future directions. In A.S. Bellack, M. Hersen, & A.E. Kazdin (Eds.), International handbook of behavior modification and therap. (pp. 649–667). New York: Plenum.
18.
Kaslow, N.J., Rehm, L., & Siegel, A.W. (1984). Social-cognitive and cognitive correlates of depression in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12, 605–620.
19.
Kaslow, N.J., Stark, K.D., Printz, B., Livingston, R., & Tsai, S. (in press). Cognitive triad inventory for children: Development and relationship to depression and anxiety. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology.
20.
Kazdin, A.E., French, N.H., Unis, A.S., Esveldt-Dawson, K., & Sherick, R.B. (1983). Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among psychiatrically disturbed inpatient children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 504–510.
21.
Kazdin, A.E., Rodgers, A., & Colbus, D. (1986). The Hopelessness Scale for Children: Psychometric characteristics and concurrent validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 241–245.
22.
Kendall, P.C., Cantwell, D.A., & Kazdin, A.E. (1989). Depression in children and adolescents: Assessment issues and recommendations. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 13, 109–146.
23.
Kendall, P.C., & Ingram, R.E. (1987). The future for cognitive assessment of anxiety: Let's get specific. In L. Michelson & L.M. Ascher (Eds.), Anxiety and stress disorders: Cognitive-behavioral assessment and treatmen. (pp. 89–104). New York: Guilford.
24.
Kovacs, M. (1981). Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children. Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 46, 305–315.
25.
Kovacs, M. (1983). The Children's Depression Inventory: A self-rated depression scale for school-aged youngsters. Unpublished manuscript, University of Pittsburgh.
26.
Kovacs, M. (1989). Affective disorders in children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 44, 209–215.
27.
Last, C.G., & Strauss, C.C. (1990). School refusal in anxiety disordered children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 31–35.
28.
Laurent, J., & Stark, K.D. (in press). Testing the cognitive content-specificity hypothesis with anxious and depressed youngsters. Journal of Abnormal Psychology.
29.
Mitchell, J., McCauley, E., Burke, P., Calderon, R., & Schloredt, K. (1989). Psychopathology in parents of depressed children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 352–357.
30.
Puig-Antich, J., & Ryan, N. (1986). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children (6–18 years)–Kiddie-SADS (K-SADS). Unpublished manuscript, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh.
31.
Quay, H.C. (1977). Measuring dimensions of deviant behavior: The behavior problem checklist. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 5, 277–287.
32.
Reynolds, C.R., & Richmond, B.O. (1978). What I think and feel: A revised measure of children's manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 271–280.
33.
Reynolds, W.M., Anderson, G., & Bartell, M. (1985). Measuring depression in children: A multi-method assessment investigation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 13, 513–526.
34.
Reynolds, C.R., & Richmond, B.O. (1985). Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
35.
Saylor, C.F., Finch, A.J., Spirito, A., & Bennett, B. (1984). The Children's Depression Inventory: A systematic evaluation of psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 955–967.
Stark, K.D., Humphrey, L.L., Crook, K., & Lewis, K. (1990). Perceived family environments of depressed and anxious children: Child's and maternal figure's perspectives. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 527–547.
38.
Stark, K.D., Humphrey, L.L., Laurent, J.L., Livingston, R., & Christopher, J.C. (in press). Cognitive, behavioral, and family factors in the differentiation of depressive and anxiety disorders during childhood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
39.
Watson, D., & Clark, L.A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465–490.
40.
Watson, D., Clark, L.A., & Carey, G. (1988). Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety and depressive disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 346–353.
41.
Wolfe, V.V., Finch, A.J., Saylor, C.F., Blount, R.L., Pallmeyer, T.P., & Carek, D.J. (1987). Negative affectivity in children: A multitrait-multimethod investigation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 245–250.
