Specific Negative Outcomes of Bullying or Victimization Forms on Psychological Adjustment

Abstract

Models that distinguish between specific forms of bullying offer a deeper understanding than unidimensional approaches. Yet the distinct negative outcomes associated with each form during adolescence remain underexplored. This study applies psychological network analysis (Gaussian graphical model) to examine cross-sectional links between bullying and victimization (physical, verbal, rumor-spreading, exclusion, and cyber), internalizing symptoms (depression, anxiety, social phobia, low self-esteem), and externalizing problems. Adolescents (N = 1,519; M _age = 12.5) from 18 schools completed self-reports at two time points (3 months apart). Network models were estimated separately for each wave. The analysis showed that bullying and victimization overlapped most in verbal and physical forms, less so in rumor-spreading, peer exclusion, and cyber forms. Victimization types were linked to distinct psychological outcomes: physical victimization to self-related worries, verbal victimization to feelings of worthlessness, peer exclusion to sadness, rumor-spreading to social anxiety and appetite problems, and cyber victimization to social phobia and low self-esteem. Prevention and intervention efforts should focus particularly on verbal and rumor-spreading bullying, which were central in the networks. Support for victimized students should address feelings of worthlessness and the specific harms tied to each victimization experience.