Special Educator Burnout and Fidelity in Implementing Behavior Support Plans: A Call to Action

Abstract

Special education teachers have one of the most challenging and stressful jobs in public education, which often leads to increased burnout. High levels of burnout have, in turn, been related to lower levels of fidelity of implementation in delivery of evidence-based behavior interventions. The purpose of this position paper is to (a) propose exploration of several potential malleable factors related to burnout of special educators serving students with and at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders, (b) link those suggestions to theoretical frameworks, (c) discuss the relation between burnout and fidelity, and (d) suggest measures that may be used to pursue this research, with the ultimate goal of helping the field discover means of intervention to remediate and prevent burnout.

Keywords

emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD)student profiles student characteristics

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Alarcon

G. M.

(2011). A meta-analysis of burnout with job demands, resources, and attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(2), 549–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.03.007

Aloe

A. M.

Amo

L. C.

Shanahan

M. E.

(2014). Classroom management self-efficacy and burnout: A multivariate meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 26, 101–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-013-9244-0

Bandura

(1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.

Barrish

H. H.

Saunders

Wolf

M. M.

(1969). Good behavior game: Effects of individual contingencies for group consequences on disruptive behavior in a classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2(2), 119–124. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1969.2-119

Berry

A. B.

Petrin

R. A.

Gravelle

M. L.

Farmer

T. W.

(2011). Issues in special education teacher recruitment, retention, and professional development: Considerations in supporting rural teachers. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 30(4), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F875687051103000402

Bettini

E. A.

Cumming

M. M.

O’Brien

K. M.

Brunsting

N. C.

Ragunathan

Sutton

Chopra

(2020). Predicting special educators’ intent to continue teaching students with emotional or behavioral disorders in self-contained settings. Exceptional Children, 86(2), 209–228. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0014402919873556

Bettini

E. A.

Jones

N. D.

Brownell

M. T.

Conroy

M. A.

Park

Leite

Crockett

Benedict

(2017). Workload manageability among novice special and general educators: Relationships with emotional exhaustion and career intentions. Remedial and Special Education, 38(4), 246–256. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741932517708327

Bettini

E. A.

Wang

Cumming

Kimerling

Schutz

(2019). Special educators’ experiences of roles and responsibilities in self-contained classes for students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 40(3), 177–191. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741932518762470

Billingsley

B. S.

Bettini

(2019). Special education teacher attrition and retention: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 89(5), 697–744. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319862495

10.

Billingsley

B. S.

Bettini

Mathews

H. M.

Mceskey

(2020). Improving working conditions to support special educators’ effectiveness: A call for leadership. Teacher Education and Special Education, 43(1), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0888406419880353

11.

Birch

S. H.

Ladd

G. W

. (1998). Children’s interpersonal behaviors and the teacher-child relationship. Developmental Psychology, 34(5), 934–946. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.34.5.934

12.

Bitterman

Gray

Goldring

(2013). Characteristics of public and private elementary and secondary schools in the United States: Results from the 2011–12 Schools and Staffing Survey (NCES Publication No. 2013-312). National Center for Education Statistics.

13.

Brock

M. E.

Carter

E. W.

(2016). Efficacy of teachers training paraprofessionals to implement peer support arrangements. Exceptional Children, 82(3), 354–371. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0014402915585564

14.

Bronfenbrenner

(1976). The experimental ecology of education. Teachers College Record, 78, 157–204. https://doi.org/10.2307/1174755

15.

Bronfenbrenner

Morris

P. A.

(2006). The bioecological model of human development. In Lerner

R. M.

Damon

(Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (Vol. 1, 6th ed., pp. 793–828). Wiley.

16.

Brownell

M. T.

Bettini

Pua

Peyton

Benedict

A. E

. (2018). Special education teacher effectiveness in an era of reduced federal mandates and increasing teacher shortages. In Crockett

J. B.

Billingsley

B. S.

(Eds.), Handbook of leadership and administration for special education (pp. 260–280). Routledge.

17.

Browning-Wright

Mayer

G. R.

Cook

C. R.

Crews

S. D.

Kraemer

B. R.

Gale

(2007). A preliminary study on the effects of training using Behavior Support Plan Quality Evaluation Guide (BSP-QE) to improve positive behavioral support plans. Education and Treatment of Children, 30(3), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2007.0017

18.

Brunsting

N. C.

Sreckovic

M. S.

Lane

K. L.

(2014). Special education teacher burnout: A synthesis of research from 1979 to 2013. Education and Treatment of Children, 37(4), 681–712. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2014.0032

19.

Capern

Hamond

(2014). Establishing positive relationships with secondary gifted students and students with emotional/behavioral disorders: Giving these diverse learners what they need. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 39(4), 46–67. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2014v39n4.5

20.

Carnahan

C. R.

Williamson

Clarke

Sorenson

(2009). A systematic approach for supporting paraeducators in educational settings. Teaching Exceptional Children, 41(5), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F004005990904100504

21.

Chang

(2009). An appraisal perspective of teacher burnout: Examining the emotional work of teachers. Educational Psychology Review, 21(3), 193–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-009-9106-y

22.

Coman

Alessandri

Gutierrez

Novotny

Boyd

Hume

Odom

(2013). Commitment to classroom model philosophy and burnout symptoms among high fidelity teachers implementing preschool programs for children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 345–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1573-1

23.

Conley

You

(2017). Key influences on special education teachers’ intentions to leave: The effect of administrative support and teacher team efficacy in a mediational model. Educational Management and Leadership, 45(3), 521–540. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143215608859

24.

Conroy

M. A.

Sutherland

(2012). Effective teachers for student with emotional/behavioral disorders. Beyond Behavior, 22(1), 7–13. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F107429561202200103

25.

Cook

C. R.

Mayer

G. R.

Wright

D. B.

Kraemer

Wallace

M. D.

Dart

. . . Restori

(2012). Exploring the link among behavior intervention plans, treatment integrity, and student outcomes under natural educational conditions. Journal of Special Education, 46(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022466910369941

26.

Cooley

Yovanoff

(1996). Supporting professionals-at-risk: Evaluating interventions to reduce burnout and improve retention of special educators. Exceptional Children, 62(4), 336–355. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001440299606200404

27.

Couvillon

Yell

Katsiyannis

(2018). Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District (2017) and special education law: What teachers and administrators need to know. Preventing School Failure, 62(4), 289–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2018.1456400

28.

Crane

Iwanicki

(1986). Perceived role conflict, role ambiguity, and burnout among special education teachers. Remedial and Special Education, 7(2), 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F074193258600700206

29.

Decker

D. M.

Dona

D. P.

Christenson

S. L.

(2007). Behaviorally at-risk African American students: The importance of student-teacher relationships for student outcomes. Journal of School Psychology, 45(1), 83–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.09.004

30.

Dykstra

J. R.

Sabatos-DeVito

M. G.

Irvin

D. W.

Boyd

B. A.

Hume

K. A.

Odom

S. L.

(2013). Using the Language Environment Analysis (LENA) system in preschool classrooms with children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 17(5), 582–594. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362361312446206

31.

Embich

J. L.

(2001). The relationship of secondary special education teachers’ roles and factors that lead to professional burnout. Teacher Education and Special Education, 24(1), 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F088840640102400109

32.

Ennis

R. P.

Jolivette

Swoszowski

N. C.

(2017). Special considerations for using functional behavior assessment and functionally-indicated interventions with students in alternative settings. Beyond Behavior, 26(3), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1074295617728512

33.

Federici

R. A.

Skaalvik

E. M.

(2012). Principal self-efficacy: Relations with burnout, job satisfaction, and motivation to quit. Social Psychology of Education, 15, 295–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-012-9183-5

34.

Fisher

Pleasants

S. L.

(2012). Roles, responsibilities, and concerns of paraeducators: Findings from a statewide survey. Remedial and Special Education, 33(5), 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741932510397762

35.

Fixsen

D. L.

Blase’

K. A.

Naoom

S. F.

Wallace

(2009). Core implementation components. Research on Social Work Practice, 19(5), 531–540. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1049731509335549

36.

Gable

R. A.

Tonelson

S. W.

Sheth

Wilson

Park

K. L.

(2012). Importance, usage, and preparedness to implement evidence-based practices for students with emotional disabilities: A comparison of knowledge and skills of special education and general education teachers. Education and Treatment of Children, 35(4), 499–519. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2012.0030

37.

Gage

N. A.

Lewis

T. J.

Stichter

J. P.

(2012). Functional behavioral assessment-based interventions for students with or at risk for emotional and/or behavioral disorders in school: A hierarchical linear modeling meta-analysis. Behavioral Disorders, 37(2), 55–77. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F019874291203700201

38.

Garwood

J. D.

Adamson

(2022). Youth identified with emotional disturbance whoexhibit aggression: Perspectives on origins and options for intervention. Preventing School Failure, 66, 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2021.1922334

39.

Garwood

J. D.

Harris

A. H.

Tomick

J. K.

(2017). Starting at the beginning: An intuitive choice for classroom management. Teacher Education and Practice, 30, 77–97.

40.

Garwood

J. D.

Moore

(2021). School connectedness insights for teachers educatingyouth with a severe emotional disturbance in residential treatment. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 38, 153–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2019.1707145

41.

Garwood

J. D.

Peltier

Sinclair

Eisel

McKenna

J. W.

Vannest

K. J.

(2020). A quantitative synthesis of intervention research published in flagship EBD journals: 2010-2019. Behavioral Disorders, 47(1), 14–27. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0198742920961341

42.

Garwood

J. D.

Van Loan

C. L.

(2019). Pre-service educators’ dispositions toward inclusive practices for students with emotional and behavioural disorders. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 23(12), 1332–1347. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1447614

43.

Garwood

J. D.

Van Loan

C. L.

Werts

M. G.

(2018). Mindset of paraprofessionals serving students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Intervention in School and Clinic, 53(4), 206–211. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053451217712958

44.

Garwood

J. D.

Werts

M. G.

Varghese

Gosey

(2018). Mixed-methods analysis of rural special educators’ role stressors, behavior management, and burnout. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 37(1), 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F8756870517745270

45.

Gersten

Keating

Yovanoff

Harniss

M. K.

(2001). Working in special education: Factors that enhance special educators’ intent to stay. Exceptional Children, 67(4), 549–567. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001440290106700408

46.

Giangreco

M. F.

Doyle

M. B.

Suter

J. C.

(2012). Constructively responding to requests for paraprofessionals: We keep asking the wrong questions. Remedial and Special Education, 33(6), 362–373. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741932511413472

47.

Giangreco

M. F.

Suter

J. C.

Doyle

M. B.

(2010). Paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: A review of recent research. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 20(1), 41–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474410903535356

48.

Giangreco

M. F.

Suter

J. C.

Hurley

S. M.

(2013). Revisiting personnel utilization in inclusion-oriented schools. Journal of Special Education, 47(2), 121–132. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022466911419015

49.

Gilmour

A. F.

Wehby

J. H.

(2020). The association between teaching students with disabilities and teacher turnover. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(5), 1042–1060. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000394

50.

Gresham

F. M.

(2009). Evolution of the treatment integrity concept: Current status and future directions. School Psychology Review, 38(4), 533–540.

51.

Han

S. S.

Weiss

(2005). Sustainability of teacher implementation of school-based mental health programs. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(6), 665–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-7646-2

52.

Herman

K. C.

Hickmon-Rosa

Reinke

W. M.

(2018). Empirically derived profiles of teacher stress, burnout, self-efficacy, and coping and associated student outcomes. Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions, 20(2), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1098300717732066

53.

Hester

O. R.

Bridges

S. A.

Rollins

L. R.

(2020). “Overworked and underappreciated”: Special education teachers describe stress and attrition. Teacher Development, 24(3), 348–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530.2020.1767189

54.

Hirsch

S. E.

Bruhn

A. L.

Lloyd

J. W.

Katsiyannis

(2017). FBAs and BIPs: Avoiding common challenges related to fidelity. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 49(6), 360–379. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0040059917711696

55.

Hobfoll

S. E.

(1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.44.3.513

56.

Hopman

J. A. B.

Tick

N. T.

van der Ende

Wubbels

Verhulst

F. C.

Maras

. . . van Lier

P. A. C.

(2018). Special education teachers’ relationships with students and self-efficacy moderate association between classroom-level disruptive behaviors and emotional exhaustion. Teaching and Teacher Education, 75, 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.06.004

57.

Horner

R. H.

Yell

M. L.

(2017). Commentary on Zirkel: Judicial rulings specific to FBAs or BIPs under the IDEA and corollary state laws—An update. Journal of Special Education, 51(1), 57–79. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022466917697289

58.

Hulleman

C. S.

Cordray

D. S.

(2009). Moving from the lab to the field: The role of fidelity and achieved relative intervention strength. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(1), 88–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345740802539325

59.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. (2004). Public Law 101-476.

60.

Jarvis

(2002). Teacher stress: A critical review of recent findings and suggestions for future research directions. Stress News, 14, 12–16.

61.

Jennings

P. A.

Greenberg

M. T.

(2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–525. https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0034654308325693

62.

Jones

Youngs

(2012). Attitudes and affect: Daily emotions and their association with the commitment and burnout of beginning teachers. Teachers College Record, 114(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F016146811211400203

63.

Katsyiannis

Hodge

Lanford

(2000). Paraeducators: Legal and practice considerations. Remedial and Special Education, 21(5), 297–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193250002100506

64.

Kaufman

R. C.

Ring

(2011). Pathways to leadership and professional development inspiring novice special educators. Teaching Exceptional Children, 43(5), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F004005991104300505

65.

Kim

Youngs

Frank

(2017). Burnout contagion: Is it due to early career teachers’ social networks or organizational exposure? Teaching and Teacher Education, 66, 250–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.017

66.

King-Sears

M. E.

Garwood

J. D.

(2020). DÉCOR to measure fidelity of implementation for behavior interventions. The Clearing House, 93, 225–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2020.1772703

67.

King-Sears

M. E.

Walker

J. D.

Barry

(2018). Measuring teachers’ intervention fidelity. Intervention in School and Clinic, 54(2), 89–96. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053451218765229

68.

Kratz

H. E.

Locke

Piotrowski

Outlette

R. R.

Xie

Stahmer

A. C.

Mandell

D. S.

(2015). All together now: Measuring staff cohesion in special education classrooms. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33(4), 329–338. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0734282914554853

69.

Larson

Cook

C. R.

Flat

Lyon

A. R.

(2018). Stressed teachers don’t make good implementers. Examining the interplay between stress reduction and intervention fidelity. School Mental Health, 10, 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-018-9250-y

70.

Lee

D. L.

(2018). Social dynamics and functional behavioral assessment. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 26(1), 62–64. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1063426617750142

71.

Maggin

D. M.

Wehby

J. H.

Moore-Partin

T. C.

Robertson

Oliver

R. M.

(2009). Supervising paraeducators in classrooms for children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Beyond Behavior, 18(3), 2–9.

72.

Main

Hammond

(2008). Best practice or most practiced? Pre-service teachers’ belies about effective behavior management strategies and reported self-efficacy. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 33(4), 28–39. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2008v33n4.3

73.

Maslach

Jackson

S. E.

Leiter

M. P.

(1996). Maslach burnout inventory: Manual (3rd ed.). Consulting Psychologists Press.

74.

McIntyre

T. C.

(1983). The effect of class size on perceptions of burnout by special education teachers. Mental Retardation and Learning Disability Bulletin, 11(3), 142–145.

75.

McLeod

B. D.

Sutherland

Broda

Granger

K. L.

Martinez

R. G.

Conroy

M. A.

Snyder

P. A.

Southam-Gerow

M. A.

(2021). Development and initial psychometrics of a generic treatment integrity measure designed to assess practice elements targeting social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes in early childhood. Prevention Science, 23, 488–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-021-01304-w

76.

Mihalas

Morse

W. C.

Allsopp

D. H.

Alvarez-McHatton

(2009). Cultivating caring relationships between teachers and secondary students with emotional and behavioral disorders: Implications for research and practice. Remedial and Special Education, 30(2), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741932508315950

77.

Moolenaar

N. M.

Daly

A. J.

(2012). Social networks in education: Exploring the social side of the reform equation. American Journal of Education, 119(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1086/667762

78.

Noell

G. H.

Witt

J. C.

Slider

N. J.

Connell

J. E.

Gatti

S. L.

Williams

K. L.

. . . Duhon

G. J.

(2005). Treatment implementation following behavioral consultation in schools: A comparison of three follow-up strategies. School Psychology Review, 34(1), 87–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2005.12086277

79.

Nunnally

J. C.

Bernstein

I. H.

(1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

80.

Oakes

W. P.

Lane

K. L.

Jenkins

Booker

B. B.

(2013). Three-tiered models of prevention: Teacher efficacy and burnout. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(4), 95–126. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2013.0037

81.

O’Neill

S. C.

Stephenson

(2011). The measurement of classroom management self-efficacy: A review of measurement instrument development and influences. Educational Psychology, 31, 261–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2010.545344

82.

Oram

Owens

Maras

(2016). Functional behavior assessments and behavior intervention plans in rural schools: An exploration of the need, barriers, and recommendations. Preventing School Failure, 60(4), 305–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2016.1144555

83.

Park

E.-Y.

Shin

(2020). A meta-analysis of special education teachers’ burnout. SAGE Open. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020918297

84.

Perepletchikova

Kazdin

A. E.

(2005). Treatment integrity and therapeutic change: Issues and research recommendations. Clinical Psychology, 12(4), 365–383. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpi045

85.

Pianta

R. C.

(2001). STRS Student teacher relationship scale. Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.

86.

Prather-Jones

(2011). “Some people aren’t cut out for it”: The role of personality factors in the careers of teachers of students with EBD. Remedial & Special Education, 32(3), 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741932510362195

87.

Ransford

C. R.

Greenberg

M. T.

Domitrovich

C. E.

Small

Jacobson

(2009). The role of teacher’s psychological experience and perceptions of curriculum supports on the implementation of a social and emotional learning curriculum. School Psychology Review, 38(4), 510–532.

88.

Rizzo

House

Lirtzman

(1970). Role conflict and ambiguity in complex organizations. Administrative Sciences Quarterly, 15, 150–163.

89.

Robinson

O. P.

Bridges

S. A.

Rollins

L. H.

Schumaker

R. E.

(2019). A study of the relation between special education burnout and job satisfaction. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 19(4), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12448

90.

Ronfeldt

Loeb

Wyckoff

(2013). How teacher turnover harms student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 50(1), 4–36. https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0002831212463813

91.

Ross

S. W.

Romer

Horner

R. H.

(2012). Teacher well-being and the implementation of school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14(2), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1098300711413820

92.

Ruble

L. A.

McGrew

J. H.

(2013). Teacher and child predictors of achieving IEP goals of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 2748–2763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1884-x

93.

Ruble

L. A.

Usher

E. L.

McGrew

J. H.

(2011). Preliminary investigation of the sources of self-efficacy among teachers of students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 26(2), 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1088357610397345

94.

Russ

Chiang

Rylance

B. J.

Bongers

(2001). Caseload in special education: An integration of research findings. Exceptional Children, 67(2), 161–172. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001440290106700202

95.

Sanetti

L. M. H.

Collier-Meek

M. A.

Long

A. C. J.

Kratochwill

T. R.

(2014). Using implementation planning to increase teachers’ adherence and quality to behavior support plans. Psychology in the Schools, 51(8), 879–895. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21787

96.

Schaufeli

W. B.

Leiter

M. P.

Maslach

(2009). Burnout: 35 years of research and practice. Career Development International, 14(3), 204–220. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430910966406

97.

Schlichte

Yssel

Merbler

(2005). Pathways to burnout: Case studies in teacher isolation and alienation. Preventing School Failure, 50(1), 35–40. https://doi.org/10.3200/PSFL.50.1.35-40

98.

Sellman

(2009). Lessons learned: Student voice at a school for pupils experiencing social, emotional and behavioural difficulties. Emotional and Behavioural difficulties, 14(1), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632750802655687

99.

Shyman

(2010). Identifying predictors of emotional exhaustion among special education paraeducators: A preliminary investigation. Psychology in the Schools, 47(8), 828–841. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20507

100.

Sindelar

P. T.

Brownell

M. T.

Billingsley

(2010). Special education teacher education research: Current status and future directions. Teacher Education and Special Education, 33(1), 8–24. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0888406409358593

101.

Suter

J. C.

Giangreco

M. F.

(2009). Numbers that count: Exploring special education and paraprofessional service delivery in inclusion-oriented schools. The Journal of Special Education, 43(2), 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022466907313353

102.

Sutherland

K. S.

McLeod

B. D.

Conroy

M. A.

Cox

J. R.

(2013). Measuring implementation of evidence-based programs targeting young children at risk for emotional/behavioral disorders: Conceptual issues and recommendations. Journal of Early Intervention, 35(2), 129–149. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053815113515025

103.

Taxer

J. L.

Becker-Kurz

Frenzel

A. C.

(2019). Do quality teacher-student relationships protect teachers from emotional exhaustion? The mediating role of enjoyment and anger. Social Psychology of Education, 22, 209–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-018-9468-4

104.

Tsouloupas

C. N.

Carson

R. L.

Matthews

Grawitch

M. J.

Barber

L. K.

(2010). Exploring the association between teachers’ perceived student misbehavior and emotional exhaustion: The importance of teacher efficacy beliefs and emotion regulation. Educational Psychology, 30(2), 173–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410903494460

105.

U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, What Works Clearinghouse. (2016). Children identified with or at risk for an emotional disturbance topic area intervention report: Functional Behavioral Assessment-based interventions. http://whatworks.ed.gov

106.

Van Loan

C. L.

Garwood

J. D

. (2020a). Facilitating high-quality relationships for students with emotional and behavioral disorders in crisis. Intervention in School and Clinic, 55(4), 253–256. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053451219855740

107.

Van Loan

C. L.

Garwood

J. D

. (2020b). Measuring relationships between adolescents with emotional and behavioral disorders and their teachers: A psychometric report. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 45(2), 144–150. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1534508418786779

108.

Van Loan

C. L.

Garwood

J. D.

Smith

S. W.

Daunic

A. P

. (2019). Take CHARGE! A randomized controlled trial of a social problem-solving curriculum to support students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 27(3), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1063426617754083

109.

Vannest

K. J.

Harrison

J. R.

Temple-Harvey

Ramsey

Parker

R. I.

(2011). Improvement rate differences of academic interventions for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 32(6), 521–534. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741932510362509

110.

Varghese

Garwood

J. D.

Bratsch-Hines

Vernon-Feagans

(2016). Exploring magnitude of change in teacher efficacy and implications for students’ early literacy growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 55, 228–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.01.011

111.

Wang

E. T. G.

Ying

Jiang

J. J.

Klein

(2006). Group cohesion in organizational innovation: An empirical examination of ERP implementation. Information and Software Technology, 48(4), 235–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infsof.2005.04.006

112.

Wehby

J. H.

Maggin

D. M.

Moore Partin

T. C.

Robertson

(2012). The impact of working alliance, social validity, and teacher burnout on implementation fidelity of the Good Behavior Game. School Mental Health, 4, 22–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-011-9067-4

113.

Weiss

H. M.

Cropanzano

(1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 1–74.

114.

Williams

Dikes

(2015). The implications of demographic variables as related to burnout among a sample of special education teachers. Education, 135(3), 337–345.

115.

Wong

V. W.

Ruble

L. A.

McGrew

J. H.

(2017). Too stressed to teach? Teaching quality, student engagement, and IEP outcomes. Exceptional Children, 83(4), 412–427. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402917690729

116.

Yoon

J. S.

(2002). Teacher characteristics as predictors of student-teacher relationships: Stress, negative affect, and self-efficacy. Social Behavior and Personality, 30(5), 485–494. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.5.485

117.

Youngs

Jones

Low

(2011). How beginning special and general education elementary teachers negotiate role expectations and access to professional resources. Teachers College Record, 113(7), 1506–1540. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811111300704