This article illustrates how to (a) use schoolwide data to monitor student responsiveness to primary and secondary prevention efforts to identify students for tertiary preventions and (b) design, implement, and evaluate a function-based intervention in collaboration with two general education teachers, who served as the primary interventionists. Results demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of function-based interventions with students who are nonresponsive to primary and secondary prevention efforts. A clear functional relationship was demonstrated between the introduction of the intervention and changes in student behavior using a changing criterion design at the elementary level and an ABAB withdrawal design at the middle school level. Limitations and directions for future research are offered.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91—97.
2.
Bullis, M., & Walker, H.M. (1994). Comprehensive school-based systems for troubled youth. Eugene: University of Oregon, Center on Human Development.
3.
Cheney, D., Blum, C., & Walker, B. (2004). An analysis of leadership teams' perceptions of positive behavior support and the outcomes of typically developing and at-risk students in their schools. Assessment for Effective Intervention , 30, 7—24.
4.
Drummond, T. (1994). The student risk screening scale (SRSS). Grants Pass, OR: Josephine CountyMental Health Program.
5.
Dunlap, G., Kern, L., dePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Childs, K., et al. (1993). Functional analysis of classroom variables for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 18, 275—291.
6.
Dunlap, G., Kern-Dunlap, L., Clarke, S., & Robbins, F.R. (1991). Preliminary functional assessment survey. Unpublished document, Division of Applied Research and Educational Services, University of South Florida, Tampa.
7.
Dwyer, K.P., Osher, D., & Warger, W. (1998). Early warning, timely response: A guide to safe schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
8.
Ervin, R., DuPaul, G., Kern, L., & Friman, P. (1998). Classroom-based functional and adjunctive assessments: Proactive approaches to intervention selection for adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 65—78.
9.
Fournier, R. (2002, January 9). Education overhaul signed. The Riverside PressEnterprise, pp. A1,A9.
10.
Gresham, F.M., & Elliott, S.N. (1990). Social skills rating system. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
11.
Hartmann, D.P., & Hall, R.V. (1976). The changing criterion design. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 527—532.
12.
Horner, R.H., Carr, E.C., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single-subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional Children, 71, 165— 179.
13.
Horner, R.H., & Sugai, G. (2000). School-wide behavior support: An emerging initiative . Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2, 231—232.
14.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004) (reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990)
15.
Ingram, K., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Sugai, G. (2005). Function-based intervention planning: Comparing the effectiveness of FBA function-based and nonfunction-based intervention plans. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 224—236.
16.
Iwata, B.A., Dorsey, M.F., Slifer, K.J., Bauman, K.E., & Richman, G.E. (1982). Toward a functional analysis of self-injury. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 2, 3—20.
17.
Kamps, D., Wendland, M., & Culpepper, M. (2006). Active teacher participation in functional behavior assessment for students with emotional and behavioral disorders in general education classrooms. Behavioral Disorders, 31, 128—146.
Kern, L., Childs, K.E., Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., & Falk, G.D. (1994). Using assessment-based curricular intervention to improve the classroom behavior of a student with emotional and behavioral challenges. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 7—19.
20.
Kern, L., Delaney, B., Clarke, S., Dunlap, G., & Childs, K. (2001). Improving the classroom behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders using individualized curricular modifications . Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 9, 239—247.
Kern, L., & Manz, P. (2004). A look at current validity issues of schoolwide behavior support. Behavioral Disorders, 30, 47—59.
23.
Lane, K.L., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2004). School-based interventions: The tools you need to succeed. Boston: Pearson Education.
24.
Lane, K.L., Little, M.A., Redding Rhodes, J., Phillips, A., & Welsh, M.T. (2006). Outcomes of a teacher-led reading intervention for elementary students at-risk for behavioral disorders. Manuscript submitted for publication.
25.
Lane, K.L., Robertson, E.J., & Graham-Bailey, M.A.L. (2006). An examination of school-wide interventions with primary level efforts conducted in secondary schools: Methodological considerations. In T. E. Scruggs & M. A. Mastropieri (Eds.), Applications of research methodology: Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities (vol. 19). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
26.
Lane, K.L., Thompson, A., Reske, C., Gable, L., & Barton-Arwood, S. (2006). Reducing skin picking via competing activities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 39, 459—462.
27.
Lane, K.L., Umbreit, J., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M.E. (1999). Functional assessment research on students with or at risk for EBD: 1990 to the present. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 101—111.
28.
Lane, K.L., Wehby, J., Menzies, H.M., Doukas, G.L., Munton, S.M., & Gregg, R.M. (2003). Social skills instruction for students at risk for antisocial behavior: The effects of small-group instruction. Behavioral Disorders, 28, 229—248.
29.
Lane, K.L., Wehby, J.H., Menzies, H.M., Gregg, R.M., Doukas, G.L., & Munton, S.M. (2002). Early literacy instruction for first-grade students at-risk for antisocial behavior. Education & Treatment of Children, 25, 438—458.
30.
Lane, K.L., Wehby, J.H., Phillips, A., Weisenbach, J., Little, M.A., & Merwin, M. (2006). The utility of academic and behavioral interventions for early elementary students with reading and behavior problems. Manuscript submitted for publication.
31.
Lane, K.L., Weisenbach, J.L., Little, M.A., Phillips, A., & Wehby, J. (2006). Illustrations of function-based interventions implemented by general education teachers: Building capacity at the school site. Education & Treatment of Children, 29, 549—571.
32.
Lane, K.L., Weisenbach, J.L., Phillips, A., & Wehby, J. (2006). Designing, implementing, and evaluating function-based interventions using a systematic, feasible approach. Manuscript submitted for publication.
33.
Lewis, T., & Sugai, G. (1996). Functional assessment of problem behavior: A pilot investigation on the comparative and interactive effects of teacher and peer social attention on students in general education settings. School Psychology Quarterly, 11, 1—19.
34.
MacMillan, D., Gresham, F., & Forness, S. (1996). Full inclusion: An empirical perspective. Behavioral Disorders, 21, 145—159.
35.
March, R.E., & Horner, R.H. (2002). Feasibility and contributions of functional behavioral assessment in schools. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10, 158—170.
36.
Martens, B.K., Witt, J.C., Elliott, S.N., & Darveaux, D.X. (1985). Teacher judgments concerning the acceptability of school-based interventions. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 2, 191—198.
37.
Newcomer, L.L., & Lewis, T.J. (2004). Functional behavior assessment: An investigation of assessment reliability and effectiveness of function-based interventions . Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 12, 168—181.
38.
Robertson, E.J., & Lane, K.L. (2006). Supporting middle school students with academic and behavioral concerns within the context of a three-tiered model of support: Findings of a secondary prevention program. Manuscript submitted for publication.
39.
Satcher, D. (2001). Youth violence: A report of the Surgeon General . Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Public Health Services.
40.
Sprague, J.R., Nishioka, V.M., & Stieber, S. (2004). Skills for success: A multi-level school violence prevention intervention. Persistently Safe Schools: The National Conference of the Hamilton Fish Institute on School and Community Violence. Available from http://www.calstat.org/learningCenter/pdfs/skillsforsuccess.pdf#search=`persistently%20safe%20schools%20skills%20for%20success'
41.
Stahr, B., Cushing, D., Lane, K.L., & Fox, J. (2006). Efficacy of a function-based intervention in decreasing off-task behavior exhibited by a student with ADHD. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8, 201—211.
42.
Umbreit, J. (1996). Functional analysis of disruptive behavior in an inclusive classroom. Journal of Early Intervention, 20, 18—29.
43.
Umbreit, J., & Blair, K.S. (1997). Using structural analysis to facilitate treatment of aggression and noncompliance in a young child at-risk for behavioral disorders . Behavioral Disorders, 22, 75—86.
44.
Umbreit, J., Ferro, J., Liaupsin, C., & Lane, K. (2007). Functional behavioral assessment and function-based intervention: An effective, practical approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
45.
Umbreit, J., Lane, K.L., & Dejud, C. (2004). Improving classroom behavior by modifying task difficulty: Effects of increasing the difficulty of too-easy tasks. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1, 13—20.
46.
Vollmer, T.R., & Iwata, B.A. (1991). Establishing operations and reinforcement effects . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 279— 291.
47.
Walker, B., Cheney, D., Stage, S., & Blum, C. (2005). Schoolwide screening and positive behavior supports: Identifying and supporting students at risk for school failure. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 194—204.
48.
Walker, H.M., Ramsey, E., & Gresham, F.M. (2004). Antisocial behavior in school: Evidence-based practices. Belmont, CA: Wads-worth .
49.
Walker, H.M., & Severson, H. (1992). Systematic screening for behavior disorders: Technical manual. Longmont, CO: Sopris West .
50.
Woodcock, R.W., McGrew, K.S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities . Itasca, IL: Riverside.
