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Abstract

The current project explored parents’ motivations and constraints of game attendance at professional/collegiate sport. Further, the sample had representation from both mothers and fathers, which has been neglected in the literature. The qualitative design included 14 semi-structured interviews evenly split between mothers and fathers who currently had a child under 18 in their home. The findings identified key thematic areas which included motivations of family leisure activity and socialization, constraints of family-life activities, substantial investment, and health/safety, as well as motivations and constraints of interest, developmental capabilities, and gameday environment. The prevalence of resulting themes existing on an attendance spectrum as both motivations and constraints to attendance behavior of the parent consumer segment is an important theoretical finding. Moreover, the mixture of themes not denoted in the literature is a key takeaway on consumer decision-making to attend a sport contest, and provides a broader parent perspective on spectator decisions.

Keywords

parenthood sport consumer behavior attendance motivators attendance constraints lifespan leisure activity game attendance

Game attendance is an important financial area to sport organizations as it generates revenue from a variety of areas which can include ticket sales, parking, concessions, and sponsorship agreements (Dees et al., 2022; Pitts & Stotlar, 2007). Additionally, attending a sporting event can increase an individual's subsequent future attendance consumption (Dees et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2019). The activity of attending a sport game is also considered a leisure pursuit that can be enjoyed by an entire family, and is a joint family leisure activity that can be important for promoting positive family functioning and bonding per the family activity model (Melton, 2017; Townsend et al., 2017). However, while attending a game is promoted by sport organizations as being a family friendly activity (Cwik, 2018; Hodklewlcz, 2024; Minor League Baseball, 2018), little research has explored the parents’ perceptions of how they view the experience of attending a sporting event, as well as what impacts their decisions to either to attend or not attend a game (Braunstein-Minkove et al., 2023; Sveinson & Toffoletti, 2023). As such, the current project aimed to better understand game attendance of the parent consumer segment.

The area of sport attendance is especially important in today's marketplace as parents have an abundance of sport and non-sport entertainment and activity options from which they can select to direct their time and resources (Dees et al., 2022; Shinde, 2025). There are also timing and environmental factors that can exclude or reduce families’ attendance to a sporting event (Sveinson & Toffoletti, 2023). Given an increase in competition and variety of leisure activity options for families, and that the leisure activity of sport spectatorship is not as popular as it has been historically (Feldman, 2021; Hatfield & Van Green, 2023), sport organizations need to better understand the decision-making process of parents to recognize what they can provide for this large consumer segment in order to be more supportive of, and attractive for, a family's game attendance. The parenting consumer segment also makes decisions for family member(s), which can impact the game attendance and future fandom of younger individuals (Dees et al., 2022; Sveinson & Toffoletti, 2023) and a father figure can have a particularly strong influence (Hatfield & Van Green, 2023; James, 2001; Wann et al., 1996). Despite the influence that a parent has on attendance of their family, little research has focused what impacts the game attendance of parents (Mansfield, 2020), particularly with a sample of parents who have children living in their home (Simmons et al., 2016), as well as a lack of insight on both the positive and negative aspects that can impact their decision-making (Kim & Trail, 2010). As such, there is an incomplete, and potentially deficient, theoretical understanding of sport consumers. The volatility in game attendance means it is pertinent for those administering the sport entity to have a better understanding of sport consumers, which is particularly true of the parent consumer segment given their buying power and influence on other family members. As such, an improved knowledge base is needed of these adults amid the life transition phase of parenthood, specifically as it relates to their perceptions of the leisure activity of attending a game. This project aimed to extend our knowledge of the parent consumer segment with representation from both mothers and fathers, the latter of whom have been neglected in the literature (Kay, 2006; Tinson et al., 2017). As such, an emphasis was placed on the experiences of parents, and the factors and various elements that motivated and constrained the game attendance behavior for themselves and their family members at professional and collegiate sporting events.

Literature Review

Game Attendance

The sport management literature has considered an array of game attendance areas (Biscaia et al., 2023; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Noll, 1974). Some attendance investigations have pertained to the stadium elements and event quality (Jae Ko et al., 2011; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995), as well as on consumer behavior and what can motivate and constrain spectator attendance (Funk et al., 2009). However, these investigations have largely not focused on both motivations and constraints to attendance nor on the parent consumer segment.

Motivations

A range of investigations have explored spectator areas that positively influence their behavior as motivations to attend a game (Kim et al., 2019; Sloan, 1989). In particular, the Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption and Sport Fan Motivations Scale have highlighted achievement/self-esteem, acquisition of knowledge, aesthetics, drama, escape, eustress, economic/gambling, entertainment, family/group affiliation, physical skill, physical attraction, and social interaction as motivating attendance decisions of consumers (Trail et al., 2003; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995). Sport managers incorporate these motivators in designing marketing efforts that appeal to consumers through promotional tactics, and gameday elements, to increase attendance. However, motivations only provide half of the decision-making process, as consumers also evaluate the negative aspects in their assessment of available options (Howard & Sheth, 1969; Kim & Trail, 2010). As such, understanding constraints, or factors that can prevent or demotivate attendance, provides a more complete picture of spectator behavior.

Constraints

Attendance constraints are a growing research topic (Simmons, Popp, et al., 2021; Yamashita et al., 2023), and some notable attendance constraints have included other entertainment options, lack of interest for a sport or from others, lack of team success, and other commitments (e.g., work, school, family). However, most investigations have focused on college students and on a single sport such as men's basketball (Havard & Dwyer, 2012), women's volleyball (Mayer et al., 2017), and football (Mayer, 2021; Simmons, Popp, et al., 2018; Trail et al., 2008). Nevertheless, the analysis of constraints has provided new decision-making insights on what can limit or prevent game attendance. Importantly, research has also indicated that the integration of motivations and constraints has helped to better understand sport spectators as factors can oscillate across these two areas (Casper et al., 2009; Trail & Kim, 2011).

Motivations and Constraints

The benefits of simultaneously investigating attendance motivations and constraints have been known for an extended period (Pritchard et al., 2009; Tomlinson et al., 1995), but limited investigations have examined both motivations and constraints to attendance. Further, most have focused on a specific sport or sport level (Kim & Trail, 2010; Mayer, 2024), but research has indicated spectator group differences on factors that impact their attendance (Fridley et al., 2023). Also, the Sport Attendance Behavior Spectrum (Mayer & Hungenberg, 2021) indicated the sport context should be accounted for with spectators (i.e., specific sport and level), as it impacts whether one perceives an area to be a motivator or a constraint. For instance, a high-cost ticket can constrain attendance, but a low-cost ticket could motivate it. As such, simultaneous consideration of motivations and constraints is relevant, particularly for the under-studied but influential parent consumer segment (Braunstein-Minkove et al., 2023; Mansfield, 2020).

Insights on what areas impact families’ game attendance are required because of the lack of analysis on motivations and constraints, and the minimal understanding of parent spectators. Notably, joint leisure activity engagement (e.g., game attendance as a family; Townsend et al., 2017) is important for promoting positive family functioning per the family activity model (Melton, 2017), and sport attendance can be a leisure pursuit. However, our understanding of the intersection of parenthood and spectatorship is in its infancy (Tinson et al., 2017).

Sport and Family

Sport marketing investigations have largely not focused on the role of a parent nor their game attendance. Rather, the focus has been on sport and family considerations with general fan behavior, such as sport media consumption. These efforts have explored partner relationships with fan–family conflict mostly focused on impacts to their significant other (Simmons et al., 2016; Simmons, Cintron, et al., 2021), de-escalation of fandom as a parent (Hyatt et al., 2018; Mansfield, 2020; Tinson et al., 2017), as well as explorations on time conflict, role conflict, and gender role expectations (Grappendorf et al., 2023; Simmons, Grappendorf, et al., 2018). However, these investigations did not always include couples with children, which is a distinguishable component in sport consumer behavior. Of note, some parents have viewed sport as an obligation, an opportunity to spend time and bond with their family, as well as use it for teachable moments and social development (Gantz & Lewis, 2023; Hyatt et al., 2018; Mansfield, 2020; Tinson et al., 2017), but the focus was not on game attendance. Thus, a need exists to examine parents and their spectator behavior via game patronage decisions.

Parents’ Game Attendance

Only a few investigations have focused on parents and game attendance. Braunstein-Minkove and Metz (2019) investigated mothers’ professional sport attendance. Then, Sveinson and Toffoletti (2023) built upon this work and focused on areas that make stadiums family friendly for mothers. Each denoted the stadium environment inside and outside the facility. In particular, the family atmosphere impacted attendance via crowd behavior, availability of baby changing units, bathrooms, nursing/pumping spaces and parent rooms, cost, and social aspects.

It is notable the family game attendance literature has had a strong focus on perceptions of mothers. While mothers make a lot of family decisions (Braunstein-Minkove et al., 2023), research has indicated the strong sport influence fathers have on children (James, 2001; Wann et al., 1996) and the need for research to include the perceptions of fathers (Kay, 2006). It is also noteworthy that minimal research has focused on the leisure activity of parents’ attendance behavior given parents’ impact on other family members, and the importance of attendance to sport organizations. As such, this necessitates an extension of the sport consumer behavior knowledge from the parental standpoint (Delia et al., 2022; Hyatt & Foster, 2015; Williams et al., 2023). A broader understanding of spectator decisions from perspectives of all parents, which includes both mothers and fathers with children in their home, is needed to enrich the literature. Therefore, the following research questions (RQ) were developed to guide the study:

RQ 1: What are the areas that motivate the attendance of a parent to a sport game?

RQ 2: What are the areas that constrain the attendance of a parent to a sport game?

Methodology

Instrument and Process

The questions guiding this research revolved around understanding the experiences of sport attendance among parents, and the factors that motivated and constrained their attendance behavior to professional/collegiate games. Given the dearth of empirical evidence concerning parent's attendance from both mothers and fathers, a qualitative design was utilized to gather in-depth insights into participants’ experiences, thereby facilitating a nuanced exploration of the research questions (Jones, 2022). Specifically, the primary data collection method consisted of semi-structured interviews and probing follow-up questions to prompt detailed responses, an aspect deemed of particular importance given little evidence within the literature on attendance motivations and constraints (Kim & Trail, 2010; Mayer & Hungenberg, 2021), and specifically parents’ attendance (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019; Sveinson & Toffoletti, 2023).

A seven question semi-structured interview guide was developed to discover insights and obtain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of parents’ game attendance (Creswell, 2013, 2014; Jones, 2022). The interview guide allowed for an inductive approach to the data and ensured that participant responses directed the emergent themes, due to the lack of prior theoretical underpinnings on parent's game attendance with representation from both mothers and fathers (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019; Creswell, 2013, 2014; Jones, 2022; Shaw & Hoeber, 2016; Sveinson & Toffoletti, 2023). The first three questions considered attendance motivations (RQ 1), the next three considered constraints to attendance (RQ 2), and last question addressed any area that may have not been previously discussed but was important to consider (see Appendix). A multi-question approach was utilized as research indicated the motivation area to be multi-faceted (Kim et al., 2019), which was also suggested for constraints (Mayer & Hungenberg, 2021; Trail & Kim, 2011), and that there was more to uncover in both motivations and constraints and specifically from parents (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019; Kim & Trail, 2010; Mansfield, 2020; Mayer & Hungenberg, 2021; Sveinson & Toffoletti, 2023). The multi-question approach also allowed for deeper information to be gathered, as well as for the opportunity of follow-ups to be asked by the researcher to allow elaboration, clarification, and ensure accuracy (Creswell, 2013, 2014; Jones, 2022; Shaw & Hoeber, 2016).

To recruit appropriate participants, purposeful sampling was utilized in which potential participants’ attributes were analyzed to certify they matched the purposes of the research (Creswell, 2014). To this end, preliminary discussions with participants deemed especially knowledgeable occurred prior to interviews (Palinkas et al., 2015; Shenton & Hayter, 2004). This approach allowed the recruitment of participants who would best inform the research questions. The participants were recruited through researchers’ personal connections and referrals, where the inclusion of participants who were both known and unknown to the authors enhanced reliability (Taylor, 2011). Of note, half of the sample was not known/did not have any relationships with the authors. Virtual interviews were conducted and lasted approximately 30 min, a common data collection method deemed appropriate considering cost and accessibility benefits provided by the medium to all parties (Gray et al., 2020; Sullivan, 2012). Participants were also asked to complete a brief demographic survey.

Participants

A total of 15 parents were interviewed; however one was dropped after the individual revealed they no longer had a child under the age of 18 residing in their household. Therefore, 14 parents’ interviews were analyzed, comparable to other sport-parent investigations (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019; Simmons, Cintron, et al., 2021). The interviewed parents were evenly split between mothers and fathers, and all parents had previously attended collegiate and/or professional sporting events. Of note, 12 participants disclosed demographic information in their survey response, and two declined to disclose this information. Since becoming a parent, 11 had attended a collegiate or professional sporting event with their child, and nine had attended without their child. Parents were predominately in middle-adulthood (Mage = 42.00 years, SD = 5.24), had between one (n = 2.00) and three children (n = 2.00), and their children represented a wide range of ages (Mage = 10.63, SD = 5.79, range 1–22; two parents with a child over 18 also had a child under the age of 18). One parent was a single parent, while all others were residing with their spouse. All parents identified as Caucasian/non-Hispanic, and were from the eastern side of the United States (i.e., three parents resided in the Northeast, seven in the Mid-Atlantic, and two in the Southeast). Parents education level varied where three reported some college, two had a bachelor's degree, four had a master's degree, and three had a doctoral/terminal degree. Further, parents reported being big fans of sport (M = 8.80 out of 10, SD = 1.75).

Data Analysis

After each interview was conducted it was transcribed verbatim, and the authors individually proceeded with open coding to identify patterns, sub-categories, and connections between the theory and data, thereby relying on inductive analyses to derive meaning within the findings (Jones, 2022; Patton, 2015; Thomas, 2006). Simultaneous data collection and analysis occurred to identify emergent themes addressing the research questions (Creswell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). After each author's independent completion of their analysis, the researchers then met as a group for comparisons of their identified themes. The primary purposes of these discussions were to clarify the code labels and categories assigned to actual participant quotes and verified all authors coded the interview transcripts using similar codes, thereby assuring rigor and transparency across the different stages of analysis (Creswell, 2014; Miles & Huberman, 1994). After multiple meetings, and several rounds of the analysis coding procedure, followed by a substantial series of discussions between all authors, consensus was reached to achieve inter-coder agreement and assure rigor and transparency (Miles & Huberman, 1994). It was determined that data saturation, the point at which no further insights were added (Charmaz, 2006), was reached within the sample after additional data collection and analysis provided no new findings (Saunders et al., 2018).

Data Trustworthiness and Credibility

To ensure trustworthiness, credibility, consistency, and rigor, the following activities helped guide analyses: methodological coherence, appropriate sample, debriefing sessions, member checks of the findings, and peer scrutiny via expert reviews (Morse et al., 2002; Shenton, 2004). The detailed summaries of the emergent themes and sub-themes were shared with a select participant sub-group to verify accuracy of the findings (Hoffart, 1991; Jones, 2022), and feedback was solicited from two expert debriefers (i.e., faculty of other institutions) who provided external perspectives (Creswell, 2014), which did not result in any modifications. To ensure confidentiality and adhere to Institutional Review Board protocols, participants’ names/identifiable information were removed from materials (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). The below findings provide verbatim quotes and summaries to illuminate the phenomenon under study.

Findings

The salient attendance themes and sub-themes for each research question are presented below in the order of motivations (i.e., RQ 1), constraints (i.e., RQ 2), and areas that were noted as both motivations and constraints (i.e., RQ 1 and RQ 2).

Motivations

The game attendance motivation findings consisted of two themes. The first theme focused on the family leisure activity—a desire for everyone in the family to take part in the outing and spend time together, with a sub-theme of fosters family connections. Additionally, the second theme focused on socialization—opportunities for interactions and exposures to others, with the sub-themes of sport and life.

Family Leisure Activity

One attendance motivator was a desire for everyone in the family to take part in the outing and spend time together. The game was an opportunity for family time, where the outing was an enjoyable family escape, as highlighted by Participant 9 when he said, “Oh, I guess it would just be family time … You know, it's a way for us as a family to get away to attend a sporting event.” Participant 6 further expanded upon the theme when she said:

There are not many family-friendly experiences that are just as enjoyable for parents as they are for kids…I can go to a baseball game, and I can get into the actual baseball where my kids we can go to the same place and have different things we like about it.

Fosters Family Connections. Additionally, parents consistently noted that the family leisure activity of attending the game together was a way to foster family connections. The sub-theme was eloquently noted by Participant 1 when he said:

It's a passing down of a tradition…To expose people in their family to what they really love doing, hoping it connects them to one another. It's kind of a branch of what their interest is, and it will sometimes bring the family closer together. You have fathers and sons and fathers and daughters who share an interest in the same team. You know it's a bond, and it's a bond that usually lasts forever.

Specifically, attendance at a game offered an opportunity for family members to bond, make memories, and pass along family traditions such as an affinity for a sport, team, and/or fandom. Participant 14 echoed this sentiment of family connections when he stated:

I think really just making that connection with the family, you know, doing something together. My daughters are not really sports fans, but we did go. I remember we went down to Jersey, went to a Phillies game. They had a great time. You know, I grew up near Philly, so I'm a Phillies fan and you know, they kind of felt my excitement. And just kind of a bonding experience… You know, it's kind of a family bonding event…It's an event that, increases family bonding and community.

Also, Participant 5 expanded on passing along shared experiences when she said she and her husband wanted to pass along their fandoms to their sons and immerse them in such experiences:

We were talking about going to a West Virginia game, my husband wants to take our son, because that's what he grew up doing, and he wants to give him that same experience. I wouldn’t say we’re not friends of West Virginia, but I feel like that's more of like, “I did this as a child, and I want to give you this experience…” We go to a lot of George Mason games because I’m a fan, and I want them to be fans too, which my son now is a fan.

Socialization

Another game attendance motivator was the opportunity to be able to interact with others for the parent and child. The social interaction component was expressed well by Participant 6 when she said, “You just want to have an adult conversation with anybody. So yes, I think at certain points you could just chat with the people around you and have outside social interactions.” Participant 10 also expressed the social element for her family that stated, “Socially, we have a lot of other football families we hang out with. So, we all go.” Participant 1 also highlighted the area when he bluntly stated, “It's sports, you know besides it is what it is, it's also a great social connector.” Specifically, participants desired interaction with other adults, as well as wanting the socialization opportunity to grow their child's social interactions.

Sport. A sub-theme to socialization focused specifically on the sport, and the social interaction through the sport via game attendance. In this vein, attendance is a tool for the child to become more involved with sport, as supported when Participant 15 stated his attendance, “Was just to expose her to the sport…introduce her to the sport and see if she liked it.” Parents mentioned how attendance could foster an understanding of the sport, increase their child's own involvement with the sport, or expose them to different sports in hopes their child could then have a sport community to call their own. Participant 12 denoted the area well when he said, “To help them instill love for the same sports that they enjoy, helping kids understand the basics of the game, and sports in general.” Some parents took this even further, and saw game attendance as a way to create various aspirations as Participant 4 highlighted her view, “Kids love sports, especially if they play them. You know they’re like, it's amazing to go see the professionals or even like the college level, you know and like dream ‘Oh that could be me one day.’”

Life. Parents focused on how game attendance could also socialize children in life more broadly in the second sub-theme. Parents expressed there are benefits gained from social opportunities at games, and that these social dynamics can be used to teach life-skills and lessons. Parents emphasized these had to be experienced in the real world, and not just watched on television. For example, attendance afforded the opportunity for children to learn societal norms on suitable behavior, such as how to behave in a group setting and function in society. Participant 13 detailed games were an opportunity for her to have conversations on appropriate behavior, “We know our kids are going to hear swear words. I think a lot of parents nowadays expect to hear it when you're out and about at events. We talk about it, you know, when is it an appropriate time to swear?” Participant 6 also summarized the sub-theme when she stated:

It's important for them to learn how to behave, and expose them to new environments, and all of that… In a sports atmosphere, I want them to understand how you’re sitting next to someone, you can’t dump your popcorn on them. They might be cheering for the other team, you can have a gentle back and forth, and you can talk to people. Don’t stand up and block everyone's view. Just the basics of etiquette based around game attendance.

Participant 12 shared a similar sentiment, and he denoted specific life skills:

Competition, fun, teamwork, hard work, perseverance, all of those things. There are so many life lessons in sports. So, I want all of my kids to have all that, to know every bit of that… I think it's important for kids to have that common language with their friends. And you know a lot of people love sports. And so, if you’re not at all into sports, you’re missing out on some connections with a lot of people.

Constraints

The findings for areas that constrained the attendance of a parent to a sport game consisted of three themes. The first theme focused on family-life activities—other activities that took precedent in their schedules over going to a game, with the sub-themes of alternatives and schedule conflicts. The second theme revolved around the substantial investments—the considerable resources required to attend a game, with sub-themes of time/energy and perceived value. The third theme focused on health/safety—expressions of concern about their wellbeing.

Family-Life Activities

A constraint to parents’ game attendance was a lack of free time among family members and a recognition of other activities that took precedence over going to a game. Participant 9 encompassed the area well when he commented on his family being so busy:

Work related for me, and activity related for them…We had season tickets, and we were able to go to 3, 4, 5 games a year. Then, as they got more involved with school, they had activities on Fridays, on Saturdays, things like that. And me, I work a lot of weekends. So, it's always that work-life balance is sort of what hindered us going to more events.

Participant 3 also echoed a similar sentiment on her busy family schedule:

That's another thing, is like your family schedule. We as professionals, my husband works crazy hours, and then he gets home, and a lot of times I finish up work when he's home with the kids, so that he can take the kids while I finish my work. And it's hard to fit it in our schedule. So, I think some families might have better schedules for being able to attend things like that, and be able to take their kids to events.

Alternatives. One sub-theme of family-life activities that constrained parents’ game attendance were alternatives that the family decided to attend together rather than attending the game. For instance, Participant 3 remarked of her family, “Instead of going to games with our kids, we tend to get out to parks, and we try new playgrounds all the time, children's museums, and stuff like that.” Some other alternative activities included going to a library event, amusement park, movie, concert, zoo, aquarium, shopping, as well as outdoor recreational activities of exploring an orchard, hiking, biking, walking, or other sport participation pursuits. Participant 7 highlighted the area well when he stated:

You kind of want to get a breadth of things for your kids to do and expose them to a lot of things. So, we’ll buy a season of the theater to take the kids to or go to like state parks, national parks, that kind of stuff that are in our area instead of going to games. And it's just kind of an allocation of resources thing, like, we could go to another Phillies game, or we could go to a Sixers game or something like that, or we could go on a hike and go do something outdoors. And so, you want to try and get that breadth of experience.

These were activities the family selected over going to a game, where parents noted an array of available options in their local area which was described by Participant 1 when he said, “Here we can do whatever, so I don't rely on sporting events.”

Schedule Conflicts. A second sub-theme of family-life activities included schedule conflicts. Specifically, game attendance was not possible due to other events already in the family's schedule that were at the same time as the game, as Participant 12 remarked on his family, “It's just hard to coordinate it by schedule especially once they get to be teenagers in their own sports and activities and school things and friends and work and all that.” A common conflict was their child's own sport activities (e.g., games, practices, lessons), as Participant 8 highlighted when she said:

For us right now, in the season that we’re in, wrestling takes up from August-January. So, if we wanted to go as a family there, we can’t do anything as a family until after wrestling season is over… So really the truth is, I mean, our kids, their own sports sometimes get in the way of us being able to attend games and that kind of stuff.

Conflicts also regarded families’ daily schedule and routines, especially nap/bedtime, as a game may occur during the time of the family-life activity, as Participant 5 asserted when she said:

I can’t go to a 7:00 game. Like that just doesn’t work out. So, when we’re looking at what our options are, we’re looking at like afternoon now. But before, like when they were younger, we couldn’t go to a game that was like during nap time.

Substantial Investment

Another attendance constraint for parents was the substantial investment of adult resources it takes to go to a game. Parents stated there was a lot of planning and logistics that must occur to attend a game. Planning considerations included the parent having to contemplate each family member in their deliberations. Further, these efforts often had to be done weeks to months before the game to make attending the game a reality, which Participant 4 highlighted when she said, “I just don’t want to deal with the logistics… The planning is a headache.” The logistical planning was above and beyond the significant financial investment. Parents remarked the total cost of a game was not just the ticket purchase, but also travel, parking, and other elements made it a high expenditure. Participant 7 lamented on such considerations as he said:

I don’t know that I’m ready to like fly to Columbus and then get there and have the kids be like it's cold and I want to leave. And I’m like no, you don’t understand this was $500 bucks, we’re not leaving…I think that's just a logistical thing, that is born by cost.

Altogether, the long planning period and large financial cost often complicated matters and made it more difficult to navigate going to a game.

Time/Energy. A sub-theme to the investment constraint pertained to how parents’ attendance was negatively influenced by the time and energy required to attend a game. For instance, Participant 9 encompassed the sub-theme when he remarked, “I mean, you’ve got to give up a day, a day and a half to attend most of them.” Similarly, Participant 6 frankly commented her attendance was constrained “because the games are long, it is a big-time commitment.” Participant 5 also commented on the large time and energy investment, and expanded that once you are a parent, “you don’t have as much free time. That free time is smaller and smaller” which constrained her attendance. A gameday takes a lot of hours, and such a lengthy commitment requires investments of their time and effort that are not always possible for a parent. Participant 14 further expanded upon the theme when he said:

You know the times…A Patriots game, it could be a 12 hour affair. You know, the guys that I went with, they like to get to the game like 4 hours beforehand and, so, by the time the game starts, you know you're already pretty tired. And then there's the game… The traffic after the game. So, you know, by like, door to door, it could be a 12 hour event.

Perceived Value. The second sub-theme concerned parent's game attendance being constrained by the perceived value of the investment. Parents questioned the perceived value of the costs, and whether the significant investment of going to a game was actually worth it, as Participant 4 shared her thought process, “I’m thinking to myself are you serious, this is insane. The shirt was $40. No, I can make that for like a quarter of the cost… So yeah, I wonder how people truly afford that stuff.” The parents felt the sport organizations did not care about them or their frustrations with the circumstances surrounding them while at the game. Relatedly, parents expressed they felt the team was taking advantage of them, both from a financial perspective and in not offering supportive options/updates that would make for a more enjoyable and affordable experience when attending as a family. This was summarized well by Participant 1 when he said:

I don’t go all the time because it's kind of a hassle anyway… The idea of spending $400, $500 to go a game, and go through all that sometimes is not appealing… They just have you there, it's a monopoly. And you don't have another option, and you just feel like they're ripping you off. And no matter where you are, and you just feel a little bit abused. So, I think you kind of walk out of there sometimes going, “Yeah, they just don't care about me as a fan, they're looking at my pocket.” So, that's it.

Health/Safety

Another theme parents indicated could prevent their attendance were concerns for their own wellbeing and/or for their family members. Participant 11 summarized the area when he said, “This world that we’re living in is kind of scary… And do people feel confident enough to take their kids in public and just the large crowd situation.” Some concerns were related to domestic terrorism and safety, whereas others were for medical and illness concerns. Parents also shared it was difficult to navigate the stadium when a child had a food allergy, and to eliminate that danger they did not attend. This was evidenced when Participant 6 stated her daughter was “Allergic to peanuts, and to bring her to some stadiums where that's on the menu, and they’re just spread all over. I just couldn’t do it. It was impossible to try and manage that allergy, so that stopped us.” Similarly, the lack of attention to children's eating habits was cited as attendance constraints. Parents commented that children frequently snack, and concession areas typically lacked healthy foods appropriate for children, evident when Participant 5 lamented her concerns:

Food options aren’t always really great. So, I’ll put some things in my purse, if I can, you know kid-friendly food… pouches and fruit. They’re not really eating nachos and cheeseburgers…That part, I think, the food options, make it a little bit more difficult.

Motivations and Constraints

The findings for areas that both motivated and constrained parents’ attendance to a game consisted of three themes. One theme focused on interest—family members having or not having the desire to go to a game. A second theme related to the developmental capabilities of a child(ren)—the child(ren)'s developmental stage and how the child and family would handle being at a game. The third theme encompassed the gameday environment—the suitability of their surroundings, which included sub-themes of facility and viewership preferences.

Interest

Parent game attendance was both motivated and constrained by the interest of various family members. As such, an interest in the sport or team from either the parent or child could motivate attendance, but a lack of interest could constrain attendance. The lack of interest could be the lack of an affinity for a specific team or sport, as well as a partner no longer being interested in going to a game after their child's birth, which Participant 12 highlighted when he said:

My wife is not all excited about going to sports events, and so sometimes she’ll put in her insight, or whatever and we’ll go that direction… So, mostly when it's that, my wife and I are kind of talking it through to begin with, and then she’ll sometimes say, “Hey, why don’t we do this instead.” I’m cool with that. I want to bend on some of that sometimes because she's a trooper… And sometimes she will prefer just to say, “Hey, so you take the kids…” But we typically like doing things as a whole unit, like it just feels weird when we’re not all together with that kind of stuff.

For some parents, they also noted a desire to support the interests and passions of one another in their family, including going to a game that was tied to sport/team fandom of another family member. Participant 8 expressed this desire to support the interest of their child when she stated:

My youngest likes soccer. I still don’t know anything about soccer, and really don’t like soccer. But he loved it, so we would attend college games around here because he was passionate about it… So, it was kind of a shared passion. I just love sports in general, but it was just seeing them being passionate about something and feeding that passion.

Developmental Capabilities

The developmental stage of the child(ren) and how they and the family would react to attending a game was both a motivation and constraint. In particular, the age of the child(ren) was a key factor, which is connected to the development capabilities concerning the attention span of a child. Moreover, the developmental capabilities of a child being able to handle attending a game due to their potential emotion dysregulation played a role. The theme was summarized well by Participant 3 when she stated:

It's just weighing the cost-benefit of something. Is this something we are ready to do as a family? I think that time is coming in a year or two, we’ll be there and our kids will be in a place where we probably will attend games because that's something that our family would love to do in person. But right now, at this age, there's just a lot to weigh in.

Parents commented that it was, largely, easier to attend with older children which then motivated their attendance. Participant 12 also expanded upon age and attendance with his children in their teenage years, “Because once their teens, they understand the game and are more focused on the game, you know they’re doing that.” Parents elaborated that younger kids are not able to focus on the game or enjoy the game, and Participant 7 stated his concerns were that “Sometimes your kid gets somewhere and is like, ‘I don’t like these… and I’m going to ruin your day because of it’…That's the worry.” However, a few parents indicated a very young child was easier to handle at a game because of their lack of mobility, which enabled the parent to further enjoy watching the game. Participant 5 highlighted this area when she stated:

Their age is like the biggest dependent thing. So, when they’re little, you can set them on your lap. I feel like pre-crawling is the time to take them. Once they can move on their own, it's hard to like really to contain them, and then you can’t sit and watch the game… And we actually stopped going for a while, because you can’t actually watch it.

Elements that could capture a child's attention, or keep them engaged, also played a role in game attendance decisions. As such, kid-friendly activities were denoted as areas of consideration that impacted their attendance (i.e., elements pre-game, during the game, and post-game). For example, some game attendance features that had the potential to captivate a child's attention included mascots, theme nights, interactive games in the stadium/videoboard, a playground, picture locations, the opportunity for movement, and player meet-and-greets. Contrastingly, if there was a lack of elements that stimulated a child, or was unable to captivate a child's attention, that constrained attendance for parents because of their child's current attention span and emotion regulation ability. Participant 10 highlighted some of these areas when she denoted various elements made it easier to bring her family to the game:

My children are still pretty young. So, I think a lot of the on the field entertainment that teams do like, a mascot or like a half-time show, or shooting T-shirts up into the stand. I think that a lot of that's really exciting for the kids, makes it easier. So, it makes it easier to have my kids there, because that stuff draws them in.

Gameday Environment

The game attendance of a parent was both motivated and constrained by the gameday environment, which included the facility and viewership preferences. In particular, parents highlighted that they considered what was going on around them in their considerations of their decision to attend a game. This could include the physical facility and the environment being out of their control due to others. These deliberations also included their own gameday proclivities, as well as considerations for those of other family members on how and/or where they preferred to consume a game. Participant 1 highlighted the gameday environment made it easier, and while not all organizations have put forth the effort, some organizations have made tailored efforts in their facility to cultivate a family environment and he stated, “They make it really family friendly because I think families are their target. So, they're focused on that consumer group today, it's easy, and I think most of the adults there, they know that kids are around.” Additionally, the thought process included what would be available and going on around them at the facility where they would watch a game, and preferences that best suited a parent and/or their family. Accordingly, some parents expressed certain teams did a good job in cultivating a family atmosphere at a game, and these were often in the sport setting of college and minor league sports. Participant 8 commented on such viewership preferences and those of her family when she highlighted her environment preferences:

Other fans and stuff. That made it a little uncomfortable… we’ll just stay at home and watch it at home… It's always nice to be home and you don’t have to worry about dealing with people… We kind of slowed down on the professional games because of the crowd getting so drunk and unruly, and some of their language that would be used… It wasn’t an appropriate environment for my kids… That's when we adapted to high school and college because it was a little less aggressive … It was the language. It was the drinking and just people being a little too aggressive.

Specifically, parents considered whether the environment was a family friendly place, which included behaviors of those around them and the setting being suitable for their child. They highlighted an environment with too much alcohol consumption, and use of foul language, could lead individuals to get out of control. Similarly, parents noted some games and sport levels drew more notoriously rowdy crowds, and they did not want their child exposed to those situations. However, they noted other games and sport levels had more of a family environment with less alcohol consumption or foul language. For instance, when talking about his daughter, Participant 15 stated, “You know, I would never probably take her to a Patriots game… Sometimes it's not family friendly, but these minor league games seem to be a little more family friendly.”

Facility. One sub-theme of the gameday environment that influenced parents’ game attendance was the facility where they would be viewing the game. The facility elements and surroundings of the stadium/arena both motivated and constrained game attendance. Parents highlighted a range of facility features around gameday impacted attendance and some made it easier to attend, such as those that considered bathroom access (e.g., quantity and having family restrooms with changing tables), lactation stations/breastfeeding areas, ample parking, level of traffic, overall cleanliness, sound/music level, the physical seats, crowd size, ability to monitor child(ren), reduced wait times, and venue location. Participant 14 recognized this area and he stated, “It is not simply the game itself…Recognize that it's the other stuff, in addition to the game, that kind of brings the families up.” Parents also denoted aspects that were more policy-oriented, communication-focused, and involved others that impacted their attendance. For example, parents highlighted policies of what is allowed to be brought in the stadium. Also, the messaging and communication avenues connected to their policies on what is or is not allowed in the stadium was a consideration, as parents lamented information was hard to obtain or not readily available. Participant 6 opined on areas that influenced her attendance over the years:

Bag restrictions are… a super small, clear plastic bag. If you have anything that's not permitted, there are certain gates you have to enter through. And so, I think that's what I would warn people about… I had to send an email to figure out, what did they offer, like could I plug it (breast pump) in? Do I need to have my battery? Just the craziness.

Viewership Preferences. A second sub-theme of the gameday environment that both motivated and constrained parents’ attendance was their viewership preferences of how and where to watch sports. Some parents preferred the atmosphere of the in-person experience at the stadium/arena, with it all happening live in front of them. Participant 14 shared his insight and said, “Even though they’re not like huge baseball fans, we had a great time at the live event, and I think that it's a different experience than simply watching it on TV.” However, other parents highlighted the ease, convenience, and control the home-viewing experience provides them and their family, which includes the television view, available game selections, comfort level, bathrooms, toys, and ability to multi-task. Participant 3 summarized the area well when she said:

At your house you have your bathroom, you have toys if your kids get bored you can still watch the game. You can do multitasking when you’re at home. Play with your kids while watching the game, and cooking dinner, and doing laundry.

Additionally, for a few parents their preference was to not have their family with them at a game, which was not always feasible. Rather, they preferred to not be in their parent role to enable some independent leisure time, commonly referred to as “me time,” over “family time.”

Further, parents also perceived viewership preferences from the stage of the day and meteorological season perspective, and comfort or inconvenience it provided. For example, the weather, which included temperature and possible precipitation, influenced attendance where Participant 6 shared she considered, “The weather, kids can’t take the heat as much as we can.” Parents preferred the game to not be too hot or cold for their children and themselves. Participant 1 professed for his game attendance, “I don't like going to football games in December. I have to dress up like I'm skiing.” Depending on the stage of the day, and meteorological season and connected weather, parents preferred protection of their seats from the elements as Participant 10 denoted she preferred, “Shade, some sort of shade for a seat is important.”

Discussion

The current project analyzed parents’ game attendance behaviors as it related to motivators and constraints for themselves and their family. This study included perspectives from both mothers and fathers who currently had a child living in their household to better inform sport marketing research regarding the influential parent consumer segment that has been largely neglected in the literature (Delia et al., 2022; Hatfield & Van Green, 2023; Kay, 2006). Overall, the prevalence of resulting themes existing on an attendance spectrum (i.e., both motivations and constraints) is an important theoretical finding (Mayer & Hungenberg, 2021). Moreover, the mixture of themes regarding motivations and constraints not highlighted in the attendance literature (Kim et al., 2019) is also noteworthy and expanded upon below.

Motivations (RQ 1)

In terms of attendance motivators that addressed RQ 1, the family leisure activity theme is akin to the family and group affiliation variables, as well as escape variables, in previous game attendance scales (Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995). However, those scales do not encompass a desire to bond and pass along a love for a sport/team, nor connected traditions, which were noted in this project and in other sport family studies (Gantz & Lewis, 2023; Mansfield, 2020; Tinson et al., 2017). The use of game attendance as an effort to pass along a family tradition supported a similar finding from Braunstein-Minkove and Metz (2019) of this desire from mothers.

There was also an attendance motivation from parents who desired socialization and interaction with others, which has been present in the literature (Trail et al., 2003; Trail & James, 2001). However, the parent desire for socialization opportunities for their child(ren) is an emerging development in the attendance literature (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019). While previous sport family literature has denoted the use of sport for social development and teachable moments (Gantz & Lewis, 2023; Mansfield, 2020; Tinson et al., 2017), the current investigation is only the second study to denote parents’ use of attendance as an opportunity for children to be exposed to social norms and foster social development (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019).

Notably, the limited number of motivation-only results is striking when compared to the plethora of investigations on motivations to game attendance and connected variables noted to positively influence the behavior of sport spectators (Kim et al., 2019). One explanation could be the present investigation did not explore motivations in isolation, but the design encapsulated both motivations and constraints to attendance. As such, this allowed for oscillation between the positive influence as a motivation and the negative influence as a constraint. Additionally, this supports the usefulness of simultaneously exploring motivations and constraints to attendance. Alternatively, the results of factors being both motivators and constraints could be a feature of the parent consumer segment. Future work should aim to explore these possibilities.

Constraints (RQ 2)

Parents’ attendance constraints addressed RQ 2, and the family-life activities theme supports the prevalence of leisure alternative options and scheduling conflicts (Kim & Trail, 2010; Trail et al., 2008). For example, work commitments and leisure sport activities prevented game attendance. Additionally, the current investigation extended the literature and highlighted family schedule conflicts, as the time of a game could also prevent attendance because the starting and/or ending time interrupted the schedule of the family (e.g., bedtimes).

Parents also highlighted attendance was constrained from the substantial time, energy, and financial investment required to go to a game. Cost is known to constrain attendance (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019; Casper et al., 2009). However, the constraints literature has not readily noted the time and energy required to attend, but focused on a lack of free time from work/social commitments (Casper et al., 2009; Pritchard et al., 2009). Rather, such a perspective is more prevalent in an event quality view of spectator sports with operating time (Jae Ko et al., 2011) and not the attendance constraints literature (Simmons, Popp, et al., 2018).

The area of health/safety for a family has not been widely highlighted as an attendance constraint. While survey measures have included a stadium location or accessibility variable (Kim & Trail, 2010; Trail et al., 2008), the focus was travel time and convenience, not the dangers from being in large crowds in facility areas. Attendance was also constrained by kids’ food allergies, and a lack of healthy and appropriate food options. Past research has considered concessions (Trail et al., 2008), and Sveinson and Toffoletti (2023) denoted mothers’ concerns with food areas/preparations in the stadium. However, the attendance literature has not examined dietary restrictions and allergies, and constraint measures have not encompassed the expressed concerns prevalent in this and other family investigations (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019; Tinson et al., 2017). As such, this is a new and important finding in family game attendance.

Spectrum of Motivations and Constraints (RQ 1 and RQ 2)

The array of results which were both motivations and constraints, and addressed both RQ 1 and RQ 2, lends support for viewing spectator attendance in a spectrum rather than in isolation of simply a motivator or a constraint (Mayer & Hungenberg, 2021). Participants’ spontaneous description of factors as both motivators and constraints is particularly noteworthy as the interview guide asked about motivations and constraints separately. As such, the current project highlighted the benefits of investigating attendance through a more holistic view. While there is value in exploring motivations, as well as constraints, in isolation, there appears to be more insight on spectator behavior with the consideration of both motivations and constraints simultaneously (Braunstein-Minkove et al., 2023; Mayer & Hungenberg, 2021). Continued support for game attendance factors existing on a continuum is an important theoretical finding for the sport marketing realm, and further exploration is needed to continue to extend the field.

The literature has largely denoted lack of interest from others as a constraint (Mayer et al., 2017; Trail & Kim, 2011). However, as evidenced in this project, when interest is viewed in terms of others (e.g., child, partner) being interested or uninterested, the attendance impact can be positive or negative in the spectrum theory (Mayer & Hungenberg, 2021).

Developmental capabilities of children were also an essential attendance consideration in the decisions of parents, and not readily noted in the literature (Kim et al., 2019). Parents mainly indicated the ease to attend with older children, somewhat akin to fan–family role conflict being more difficult for parents with younger children (Simmons, Grappendorf, et al., 2018). Moreover, the importance of activities aimed to stimulate a young child's attention (e.g., pre/during-game features) has been lacking in the literature. Rather, such a perspective has been partially considered in event quality measurements in regard to the game and show both being entertaining (Jae Ko et al., 2011), but do not fully express the depth of the current results.

Parent attendance was also differentially impacted by gameday environment, and the atmosphere and elements at the facility. Notably, event quality measurements have considered some facility elements (e.g., design, signage, fan interaction; Jae Ko et al., 2011), while motivations and constraints have focused more on weather (Trail et al., 2008) and stadium location (Mayer, 2021) with college-aged fans. However, participants’ life stage within the sport parenting literature has denoted the attendance impact of a facility (Sveinson & Toffoletti, 2023). As reiterated in this project, a facility's atmosphere/spectator behavior can motivate (Sveinson & Toffoletti, 2023) or constrain attendance (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019).

Viewership preference has predominantly not been considered in the literature, but some parents preferred to view the game at the stadium with their family, others at home with their family, and some preferred being away from their family. Student fans (Simmons, Popp, et al., 2018) and mothers (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019) have indicated being able to watch the game on television was an attendance constraint. However, neither investigation encapsulated the control a home setting provided parents. Further, the literature has not readily indicated how some parents viewed game attendance as a release from family duties (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019; Mansfield, 2020; Tinson et al., 2017). Viewership preferences also concerned the stage of day/season. Mothers have been constrained in their attendance by weather (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019), however, the current study indicated comforts provided by the day stage or meteorological season can also be a motivator.

Practical Implications

To foster attendance, practitioners could consider several areas in their efforts to increase game attendance, most of which could be easily implemented with minimal resources. Sport marketers should consider highlighting multi-generation family units in attendance on the videoboard and/or a visual display in the stadium. Such an effort links to the fosters family connection finding, thereby encouraging the tradition of family time and bonding at the game.

Further, it connects to the developmental capabilities theme, thereby re-engaging the child(ren) by giving them another area to capture their attention. Parents also highlighted socialization with game attendance to teach life lessons through sports. As such, organizations could highlight the ways sport has aided athletes’ lives and the lessons they have learned because of their involvement with the game. For example, there could be short films on the videoboard that have players and team personnel discussing life lessons through sport participation. Another option could be to highlight these traditions and messages in promotions, such as when the Atlanta Braves created an original children's book about the team as a gameday giveaway (Ward, 2025).

Also, there are frustrations for families with their gameday environment experiences at the facility (Sveinson & Toffoletti, 2023). As such, organizations have an opportunity to stand out to consumers with children by offering assistance through stadium spaces and policies that cater to this life stage (e.g., allow breast pumps, offer family restrooms and lactation stations, shaded seating and/or zones with air cooling devices, playgrounds, security presence in/around the stadium and parking areas). Sport organizations should also continue to lower prices and bundle products to reduce costs (e.g., tickets, concessions, parking), and reduce the investment required for a family to attend a game. The Atlanta Falcons introduced their “Fan-First Pricing” in 2017 which lowered prices for certain concession items to $2.00–$5.00. The approach yielded higher spectator satisfaction, increased concession sales and merchandise purchases, and families were more likely to attend future games (Rishe, 2018). As such, other teams have adopted similar approaches such as the Utah Jazz and Utah Hockey Club (Tripp, 2024). Further, another easily modifiable area for sport organizations is to update their concession options with healthy food choices, and/or with policy exceptions for a family with young children (e.g., bag size, allowances for outside food) that will increase satisfaction and future game attendance.

To help alleviate some of the parents’ family-life activities with children that conflict with game times, such as early bedtimes, teams could also embrace some schedule flexibility. For instance, the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) has offered Camper Days with game start times at 11:00 a.m., 12:00 p.m., 3:00 p.m., and 3:30 p.m. as opposed to the usual 7:00 p.m. that can conflict with a family's schedule (Hall, 2024; Suggs, 2024). Children that may not have otherwise been able to view a game, were then able to attend while they were at summer camp because of the start time of these games. The WNBA has designed a part of their league calendar to embrace kids’ schedules which assists in getting them to attend a game. Other leagues could schedule games for earlier start times that support parents taking their kids to games, much like Major League Baseball implemented during weekday games where over half of their start times were before 7:00 p.m., and ended before 9:30 p.m. (Randhawa, 2025). Moreover, the New York Mets listened to family feedback and shifted some weekend games to a 1:00 p.m. start time (Mazzeo, 2025). Sport marketers should also be sure to designate family friendly zones in the arena/stadium, and ensure this information is properly displayed and communicated to potential consumers in various facility signage, online maps, and ticketing promotional materials. The Buffalo Bills have implemented such areas and created both a “Family Zone” seating section in their stadium, as well as three “No Alcohol Corner” sections where alcohol consumption and the use of profanity are not allowed (Graham, 2024).

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

This project expanded the understanding of parents’ game attendance through the inclusion of both mothers and fathers. Future research should further expand the racial makeup of participants, as the current investigation only included Caucasian/non-Hispanic participants. Additionally, all but one participant was married, and more may be gleaned if future work expands upon the views of single parents. Future investigations could also compare perceptions of casual and non-sport fans to those of avid sport fans on attendance, as well as general fan behaviors. It may also be beneficial to explore parental insights based upon their child(ren)'s age/developmental stage, or age of the parent. Further, attendance considerations between mothers and fathers could be compared, perhaps in a quantitative investigation guided by the current project (Braunstein-Minkove & Metz, 2019; Sveinson & Toffoletti, 2023).

Interestingly, many themes were noted as both a motivation and constraint to attendance. Such results support spectator attendance being viewed on a spectrum rather than in isolation of only a motivator or constraint (Mayer & Hungenberg, 2021). Future research should continue to expand our understanding of attendance spectrum areas. Further, this investigation indicated an array of considerations constrain attendance. Much of the literature on constraints is with college-aged samples (Mayer et al., 2017; Simmons, Popp, et al., 2021; Trail et al., 2008), and the parent consumer segment is in a very different life stage. As such, it may be fruitful to explore constraints based upon life-stage, as well as sport setting.

Conclusion

This project examined facets that motivate and/or constrain parents’ (i.e., mothers and fathers) game attendance to professional/collegiate sports. Many of the results have not been highlighted in the game attendance literature (Kim et al., 2019), which underscores the need to consider gameday environment and facility elements/event quality features when measuring parent and family attendance (Jae Ko et al., 2011; Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). Moreover, there were facets that were perceived to be both a motivator and constraint, which strengthens the theoretical perspective of motivations and constraints existing on a spectrum (Mayer & Hungenberg, 2021).

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their gratitude and appreciation to the research assistants who helped with the recruitment of interview participants, as well as assisted with the interview transcriptions.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Kurt C. Mayer

Darcey N. Powell

Author Biographies

Kurt C. Mayer (PhD, University of Northern Colorado) is an associate professor of sport management at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi. His research interests include sport marketing, sport consumer behavior, and sport finance, with a particular focus on sport fans, game attendance, non-attendance, and premium seating. Dr Mayer can be contacted at kurt.mayer@tamucc.edu.

Darcey N. Powell (PhD, West Virginia University) is an associate professor of developmental psychology at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi. Her research focuses on transitions within close relationships, specifically those within non-marital romantic relationships and parenthood. Dr Powell can be contacted at darcey.powell@tamucc.edu.

Olzhas Taniyev (PhD, University of Kansas) is an assistant professor of sport management at East Carolina University. His research interests include athlete branding, brand communities, and consumer behavior. Dr Taniyev can be contacted at taniyevo24@ecu.edu.

Nick Years (BS, Roanoke College) was a sport management student at Roanoke College. His research interests include sport consumer behavior. Mr Years can be contacted at nwyears@mail.roanoke.edu.

Appendix: Semi-Structured Interview Guide

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Kickin’ It with the Family: Motivations and Constraints of Parents’ Game Attendance at Sporting Events

Abstract

Keywords

Literature Review

Game Attendance

Motivations

Constraints

Motivations and Constraints

Sport and Family

Parents’ Game Attendance

Methodology

Instrument and Process

Participants

Data Analysis

Data Trustworthiness and Credibility

Findings

Motivations

Family Leisure Activity

Socialization

Constraints

Family-Life Activities

Substantial Investment

Health/Safety

Motivations and Constraints

Interest

Developmental Capabilities

Gameday Environment

Discussion

Motivations (RQ 1)

Constraints (RQ 2)

Spectrum of Motivations and Constraints (RQ 1 and RQ 2)

Practical Implications

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

Conclusion

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

ORCID iDs

Author Biographies

Appendix: Semi-Structured Interview Guide

References