United Nations General Assembly. Resolution 2719 (XXV). In: Official Records of the General Assembly, Twenty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 28 (A/8028), p. 85; Resolution 2859 (XXVI). In: Official Records of the General Assembly, Twenty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/8429), p. 95; Resolution 3014 (XXVII). In: Official Records of the General Assembly, Twenty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 30 (A/8730), p. 68.
2.
Off. Rec Wld Hlth Org., 1973, No. 209, p. 27 (Resolution WHA26.52); World Health Organization (1973) Handbook of resolutions and decisions of the World Health Assembly and the Executive Board, Vol. 1, 1948–1972, p. 123 (Resolutions WHA23.42 and WHA24.57); p. 124 (Resolution WHA25.62).
Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1969, No. 407, p. 6 (section 1.1). This definition is intentionally broader than that used in connection with substances intended always to be of benefit to a patient. See Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1966, No. 341, p. 7 (section 2).
EddyN. B.HalbachH.IsbellH.SeeversM. H. (1965) Bull. Wld Hlth Org.32: 723.
7.
Despite the similarities in the signs and symptoms of alcohol and barbiturate intoxication and withdrawal, the Committee considered them separately from the preventive point of view because of psychological and social differences in the problems associated with their use.
8.
Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1973, No. 516, pp. 8–9 (sections 2.1). For a more complete discussion see, for example, EddyN. B.HalbachH.IsbellH.SeeversM. H. (1965) Bull. Wld Hlth Org, 32, 721–733.
For example, those of the alcohol-barbiturate, amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogen, khat, opiate (morphine), and volatile solvent (inhalant) types. See EddyN. B.HalbachH.IsbellH.SeeversM. H. (1965) Bull. Wld Hlth Org.32, 731–733; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1973, No. 516, p. 9 (section 2.1).
14.
Off. Rec. Wld Hlth Org., 1973, No. 205, p. xv.
15.
CameronD. C. (1970) Bull. Wld Hlth Org.43: 591.
16.
Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1970, No. 460, p. 11 (section 3.1.1); 1971, No. 478, p. 16 (section 3.2); 1973, No. 516, p. 18 (section 3.1).
ChopraI. C.ChopraR. N. (1957) Bull. Narcot.9 (1), pp. 4–29; RolandJ.L.TesteM. (1958) Maroc méd., 37, 694–703.
20.
AsuniT. (1964) Bull. Narcot., 16 (2), pp. 17–28; ParotA. (1942) Ann. méd.-psychol., 1, 1–24; TannerR. E. S. (1966) Int. J. Addict., 1, 9–29.
21.
RobinsL. N. (1973) A follow-up of Vietnam drug-users, interim final report, Washington, D.C., Special Action Office for Drug Abuse Prevention (Special Action Office Monograph, Series A, No. 1).
22.
TenantF. S.PrebleM.PrendergastT. A.VentryP. (1971) J. Amer. Med. Ass.216, 1965–1969; Special Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives (1971) Inquiry into alleged drug abuse in the armed services, in the 91st Congress, 2nd Session, Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office.
SmithG. M. (1973) Statement on the antecedents of teenage drug use before the Committee on Problems of Drug Dependence, National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council, USA, 21–23 May 1973.
26.
United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (1973) Third annual report to the U.S. Congress on marihuana and health (mimeographed document).
27.
HandelD. (1973) Science, 181, 1067–1070.
28.
Some use of tobacco is doubtless casual, but most use appears to be on a dependent or compulsive basis. However, tobacco is excluded from this discussion for the reasons cited in section 1.1.
29.
Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894) Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report, 1893–1894. Republished in 1969 in: Marihuana, Silver Spring, Md., Jefferson.
30.
United States National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse (1973) Second report. Drug use in America: Problem in perspective, Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 63–67.
Assuming that a given group of persons are exposed to a drug during a given period of time and therefore “at risk” of becoming dependent on it or experiencing some other drug-related problem, the term “attack rate” as used in this report means the proportion of these persons who do indeed become dependent or experience such problems.
36.
McGlothlinW. H.ArnoldD. O. (1971) Arch. gen. Psychiat.24, 35–49.
37.
There is also some tendency for alcoholics to reduce their consumption in middle age.
38.
WinickC. (1964) Bull. Narcot.16 (1), pp. 1–11; VaillantG.E. (1966) Amer. J. Psychiat., 123, 573–583; VaillantG.E. (1973) Arch. gen. Psychiat., 29, 237–241; WaldorfD. (1970) Soc Probl., 18, 228–243.
39.
SchasreR. (1966) Int. J. Addict.1 (2), pp. 23–32.
40.
WilmarthS. S.GoldsteinA. (1974) Therapeutic effectiveness of methadone maintenance programs in the USA, Geneva, World Health Organization (WHO Offset PublicationNo. 3).
41.
de AlarconR. (1969) Bull. Narcot.21 (3), pp. 17–22; HuntL.G. (1973) Heroin epidemics: A quantitative study of current empirical data, Washington, D.C., The Drug Abuse Council, Inc.
42.
As used in this report, “‘pushing’ means the act of trying to recruit new drug customers (users or non-users) for profit or for any other reason” (Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1973, No. 516, pp. 22–23 (section 3.2)).
McGlothlinW. H.TabbushV. C.ChambersC. D.KayJ. (1972) Alternative approaches to opiate addiction control: Costs, benefits and potential, Washington, D.C., United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (Final Report, BNDD Contract No. J-70-33; mimeographed document).
46.
It is recognized that some individuals in these target groups may already use, or be at high risk of using, drugs in a manner often associated with problems.
47.
“The details of these limitations would be left to governments; it is expected that the limitations would vary according to the nature of the drug involved and local conditions” (Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1970, No. 497, p. 19 (section 4.5)).
48.
SmithG. M. (1973) Statement on the antecedents of teenage drug use before the Committee on Problems of Drug Dependence, National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council (USA), 21–23 May 1973.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (1973) Report of Meeting on Education in More-Developed Countries to Prevent Drug Abuse, Paris, 11–20 December1972 (Document ED/MD/26), p. 8.
56.
BlumR. H.Associates (1969) Drugs II. Students and drugs, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, p. 379.
57.
ChowS.ErtleV.KeyesD. (1972) Drug education, Washington, D.C., United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National Institute of Education (PREP report No. 36).
United States National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse (1973) Second report. Drug use in America: Problem in perspective, Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 390.
67.
LedermanS. (1964) Alcool, alcoolisme, alcoolisation: Mortalité, morbidité, accidents du travail, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France; Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser.1973, No. 516, p. 11 (section 2.3.1).
68.
150 ml of absolute alcohol is equivalent to 375 ml (12.7 oz) of whiskey (40% alcohol) or 937 ml (31.6 oz.) of wine (average 16% alcohol) or 3000 ml (101.4 oz) of beer (5% alcohol).
69.
de LintJ.SchmidtW. (1971) Brit. J. Addict.66, 97–107.
70.
“In a given group, the proportion of persons consuming above a designated level is related not only to the average amount consumed per group member but also to the extent to which certain individuals consume amounts substantially above or below the average. As a result, the average alcohol consumption of a group in which everyone drinks about the same amount (little variability) may be similar to that of a group in which some individuals consistently drink heavily and the others relatively little (great variability). Obviously, there are biological limits to the amount that any one person can consume, and thus to the upper limit of consumption” (Wld Hlth Org. techn. Rep. Ser., 1973, No. 516, p. 11 (section 2.3.1)).
71.
SulkunenP. (1973) Alkoholipolitiika4, 147–154.
72.
The Road Safety Act, 1967, and its effect on Road Accidents in the United Kingdom, Ministry of Transport, London, reported in Alkohol und Verkehrssicherheit, Konferenzbericht der 5. Internationalen Konferenz über Alkohol und Verkehrssicherheit, Freiburg im Breisgau, 22–27 September 1969, section IV, pp. 8 & 10.
73.
SmartR. G.SchmidtW.BatemanK. (1969) J. Safety Res.1, (2), 67–73.
CampbellE. (1969) Mod. Med. (Minneap.)24, 35–42; United States Department of Transportation (1968) 1968 Alcohol and highway safety report. A study transmitted by the Secretary of the Department of Transportation for the Congress, in accordance with the requirements of Section 204 of the Highway Safety Act of 1966, Public Law 89–564, Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 14.
77.
For a substantive discussion of the effects of various government control measures on drinking behavior, see PophamR. E.SchmidtW.de LintJ. (1974) The effects of legal restraint on drinking. In: KissinB.BegleiterH., ed., Biology of alcoholism, vol. IV: Social Biology, New York, Plenum Publishing Corp. (in press).
78.
de LintJ.SchmidtW. (1971) The epidemiology of alcoholism. In: MardonesJ.IsraelY., ed., Basic aspects of alcoholism, New York, John Wiley & Sons.
79.
The usefulness of encouraging substitution of beverages with an alcohol content as low as 1–2% for those of 5% or more may, however, deserve further trials.
80.
After elimination of the effect of total alcohol consumption.
81.
In some situations it may be wise to consider the relationship between absolute price and level of consumption, or the relationship between average disposable income and consumption, rather than focusing solely on the relative price of beverage alcohol in relation to consumption. For example, where disposable income is very low or very high, a substantial increase in price may be associated with less fluctuation in level of consumption than when the level of income is less extreme. Also, well established local patterns of drinking (type of beverage, circumstances of use) may be less affected by price and/or income changes than drinking patterns that are not as solidly entrenched.
82.
For example, those involving education, enforcement, citizens' interests, correctional measures, health, industry, the judiciary, labor, legislation, mass media, parents, religion, social welfare, vocational and other rehabilitation, and youth.
83.
For example, biostatistics, ecclesiastics, clinical psycho-pharmacology, clinical psychology, cultural anthropology, economics, epidemiology, journalism, internal medicine, law, pedagogy, political science, public health and social welfare administration, and sociology.
84.
CameronD. C. (1971) WHO Chronicle25, 9–10; HilleboeH.E.SchaeferM. (1967) Papers and bibliography on community health planning, Albany, N.Y., Graduate School of Public Affairs, State University of New York at Albany.
85.
Including, if possible, persons who themselves have experienced drug-related problems.
