Nurses play a crucial role in promoting school health by supporting students’ resilience in the context of bullying. This cross-sectional study examined the influence of school climate and moral disengagement on resilience among 167 Thai secondary students using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling. Participants included 38.3% victims, 28.7% perpetrators, and 32.9% bully-victims. Most students reported medium to high levels of resilience and positive perceptions of school climate. Boys were more likely to report moral disengagement (p < .001). Structural modeling indicated that school climate was positively associated with resilience (β = 0.471, p < .001). Moral disengagement was not significantly associated with resilience, and mediation through moral disengagement was not supported. The model accounted for 27% of the variance in resilience. These findings suggest that positive school climate is closely linked to students’ resilience and underscore the relevance of school-based nursing practices that emphasize inclusive, relational, and system-level approaches.
AboagyeR. G.SeiduA.-A.HaganJ. E.FrimpongJ. B.BuduE.AduC.AyiluR. K.AhinkorahB. O. (2021). A multi-country analysis of the prevalence and factors associated with bullying victimisation among in-school adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from the global school-based health survey. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 325. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03337-5
2.
AldridgeJ. M.McChesneyK.AfariE. (2018). Relationships between school climate, bullying and delinquent behaviours. Learning Environments Research, 21(2), 153–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-017-9249-6
3.
AlyA.TaylorE.KarnovskyS. (2014). Moral disengagement and building resilience to violent extremism: An education intervention. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 37(4), 369–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2014.879379
4.
AndreouE. (2004). Bully/victim problems and their association with Machiavellianism and self-efficacy in Greek primary school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(Pt 2), 297–309. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709904773839897
5.
ArslanG. (2019). Mediating role of the self–esteem and resilience in the association between social exclusion and life satisfaction among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 151(1), 109514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109514
6.
AttawellK. (2017). School violence and bullying: Global status report. France: UNESCO and Institute of School Violence and Prevention, Ewha Womans University. https://doi.org/10.54675/POIV1573
7.
AunampaiA.WidyastariD. A.ChuanwanS.KatewongsaP. (2022). Association of bullying on happiness at school: Evidence from Thailand’s national school-based survey. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 27(1), 72–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2021.2025117
8.
BanduraA.BarbaranelliC.CapraraG.PastorelliC. (1996). Mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 364–374. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.364
9.
BenbenishtyR.AstorR. A.RozinerI.WrabelS. L. (2016). Testing the causal links between school climate, school violence, and school academic performance. Educational Researcher, 45(3), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189(16644603
10.
BerchiattiM.FerrerA.GalianaL.Badenes-RiberaL.LongobardiC. (2022). Bullying in students with special education needs and learning difficulties: The role of the student–teacher relationship quality and students’ social status in the peer group. Child & Youth Care Forum, 51(3), 515–537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09640-2
11.
BoothM. Z.RobertsA. C.GerardJ. M.GilfillanB. H. (2022). Young adolescent perceptions of school climate and self-efficacy: The intersectionality of race and gender. RMLE Online, 45(10), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404476.2022.2140004
12.
BowornkittikunA.PisitsungkagarnK.JarukasemthaweeS. (2021). Bullying victimization, self-compassion, and depressive mood as predictors for resilience in Thai junior high school students. The Asian Conference on Psychology & the Behavioral Sciences 2021, Tokyo, Japan. https://papers.iafor.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/acp2021/ACP2021_59938.pdf
13.
CappG. P.SullivanK. S.ParkY. (2023). School climate and resilience promoting characteristics: Exploring latent patterns of student perceptions in California. Oxford Review of Education, 49(5), 664–680. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2022.2146079
14.
Celdrán-NavarroM. D. C.Leal-CostaC.Suárez-CortésM.Molina-RodríguezA.Jiménez-RuizI. (2023). Nursing interventions against bullying: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4), 1–12.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042914
15.
ChenX.JinL.HailiangR.YusanC.DieF. v. C.JunweiP.SifanW.XuemengL.HaoS.YuanyuanX. (2022). Resilience mediates parenting style associated school bullying victimization in Chinese children and adolescents. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 2246. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14746-w
16.
ChulakarnN.ChaimongkolN. (2021). Factors affecting resilience among early adolescents living in homes for children: A model testing. Children and Youth Services Review, 120(2021), 105737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105737
17.
CohenJ.McCabeL.MichelliN.PickeralT. (2009). School climate: Research, policy, practice, and teacher education. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 111, 180–213. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810911100108
18.
DashG.PaulJ. (2021). CB-SEM vs PLS-SEM methods for research in social sciences and technology forecasting. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 173, 121092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121092
19.
de OliveiraW. A.da SilvaJ. L.RiskE. N.KomatsuA. V.Iossi SilvaM. A.dos SantosM. A. (2021). Bullying and mechanisms of moral disengagement: Systematic literature review with meta-analysis. Psicologia Escolar e Educacional, 25, https://doi.org/10.1590/2175-35392021223346
20.
Enzman-HinesM.ZahourekR. (2007). Research paradigms and methods for investigating holistic nursing concerns. Nursing Clinics of North America, 42, 335–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnur.2007.03.004
21.
EvansC. B.SmokowskiP. R. (2017). Negative bystander behavior in bullying dynamics: Assessing the impact of social capital deprivation and anti-social capital. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 48(1), 120–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-016-0657-0
22.
FallaD.RomeraE. M.Ortega-RuizR. (2021). Aggression, moral disengagement and empathy. A longitudinal study within the interpersonal dynamics of bullying [Original Research]. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703468
23.
FeiL.LiaoM.KeL.ZouY.LiX.ChenY.ZhangR. (2022). School bullying among Chinese third to fifth grade primary school students in a cross-sectional study: The protective effect of psychological resilience. PLOS ONE, 17(12), e0278698. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278698
24.
FelipeM. T.GarcíaS. d. O.BabarroJ. M.AriasR. M. (2011). Social characteristics in bullying typology: Digging deeper into description of bully-victim. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29, 869–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.316
25.
FlemingJ.LedogarR. J. (2008). Resilience, an evolving concept: A review of literature relevant to aboriginal research. Pimatisiwin, 6(2), 7–23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2956753/
26.
FordR.KingT.PriestN.KavanaghA. (2017). Bullying and mental health and suicidal behaviour among 14- to 15-year-olds in a representative sample of Australian children. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 51(9), 897–908. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867417700275
27.
GeorgeN.WarshawskyN. E.DoucetteJ. (2024). Nursing resilience: An evidence-based approach to strengthening professional well-being. JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration, 54(10), 554–560. https://doi.org/10.1097/nna.0000000000001488
HairJ. F.HultG. T. M.RingleC. M.SarstedtM. (2017). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed.). Sage publications.
30.
HairJ. F.SarstedtM.RingleC. M.MenaJ. A. (2012). An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural equation modeling in marketing research. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(3), 414–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-011-0261-6
31.
HaleemM.MasoodS. (2022). The role od self-control and resilience in association between childhood exposure to domestic violence and moral disengagement. International Journal of Psychological and Behavioural Research, 2(2), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.37605/ijpbr.v2i2.26
HanZ.ZhangG.ZhangH. (2017). School bullying in urban China: Prevalence and correlation with school climate. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101116
34.
HockenberryM.WilsonD.RodgersC. C. (2016). Wong's essentails of pediatric nursing (10th ed.). Mosby.
35.
HongJ. S.EspelageD. L. (2012). A review of research on bullying and peer victimization in school: An ecological system analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(4), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.03.003
JaberL. S.RinaldiC. M.SaundersC. D.ScottJ. (2023). The intent behind bullying: An application and expansion of the theory of planned behaviour. Contemporary School Psychology, 27(3), 411–425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-021-00403-3
38.
JohnsonB. (2008). Teacher-student relationships which promote resilience at school: A micro-level analysis of students’ views. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 36, 385–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069880802364528
39.
KaewseenualS.SittichaiR. (2021). Digital resilience of children towards cyberbullying and online hate speech: Comparative study of educational environment in Chiang Mai and Songkhla School. Journal of Information Science Research and Practice, 39(4), 20–45. https://doi.org/10.14456/jiskku.2021.20
40.
KillenM.DahlA. (2021). Moral reasoning enables developmental and societal change. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(6), 1209–1225. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620964076
41.
KillerB.BusseyK.HawesD. J.HuntC. (2019). A meta-analysis of the relationship between moral disengagement and bullying roles in youth. Aggressive Behavior, 45(4), 450–462. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21833
42.
KochelK. P.LaddG. W.BagwellC. L.YabkoB. A. (2015). Bully/Victim profiles’ differential risk for worsening peer acceptance: the role of friendship. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 41, 38–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2015.05.002
LeeC. H. (2011). An ecological systems approach to bullying behaviors among middle school students in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(8), 1664–1693. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510370591
45.
LeiH.ChiuM. M.QuanJ.ZhouW. (2020). Effect of self-control on aggression among students in China: A meta-analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 116, 105107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105107
46.
LiZ.WangD.LiaoJ.JinZ. (2025). The relationship between moral sensitivity and prosocial behavior in college students: the mediating roles of moral disengagement and reciprocity norms [Original Research]. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1508962
47.
LuL.FeiL.YeY.LiaoM.ChangY.ChenY.ZouY.LiX.ZhangR. (2022). Psychological resilience may be related to students’ responses to victims of school bullying: A cross-sectional study of Chinese grade 3-5 primary school students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(23). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192316121
48.
LuanpredaP.VermaP. (2016). The influence of parental bonding on depression, shame, and anger among Thai middle school children, being mediated by peer victimization (victim of bullying): A path analytical study. Scholar: Human Sciences, 7(2), http://www.assumptionjournal.au.edu/index.php/Scholar/article/view/1512
LuoY.MaT.DengY. (2023). School climate and adolescents’ prosocial behavior: The mediating role of perceived social support and resilience [Original Research]. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1095566
MandiraM. R.StoltzT. (2021). Bullying risk and protective factors among elementary school students over time: A systematic review. International Journal of Educational Research, 109, 101838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2021.101838
53.
MastenA. S. (2014). Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Development, 85(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12205
MastenA. S.LuckeC. M.NelsonK. M.StallworthyI. C. (2021). Resilience in development and psychopathology: Multisystem perspectives. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 17, 521–549. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-120307
56.
MeneghelI.MartínezI. M.SalanovaM.de WitteH. (2019). Promoting academic satisfaction and performance: Building academic resilience through coping strategies. Psychology in the Schools, 56(6), 875–890. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22253
57.
Montero-CarreteroC.PastorD.Santos-RosaF. J.CervelloE. (2021). School climate, moral disengagement and, empathy as predictors of bullying in adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 656775. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.656775
58.
NieW.GaoL.CuiK. (2022). Bullying victimization and mental health among migrant children in urban China: A moderated mediation model of school belonging and resilience. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127135
59.
OlweusD. (1996). The revised Olweus Bully/Victim questionnaire. University of Bergan.
60.
PanY.LiuH.LauP.LuoF. (2017). A latent transition analysis of bullying and victimization in Chinese primary school students. PLOS ONE, 12(8), e0182802. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182802
RatchanokU.PesonC. (2024). Factors affecting academic resilience during crises: Cases of secondary school students in Phuket, Thailand. International Education Studies, 17, 51–51. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v17n3p51
63.
RigbyK. (2024). Theoretical perspectives and two explanatory models of school bullying. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 6(2), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-022-00141-x
64.
RivaraF.MenestrelL. S. (2016). Preventing bullying through science, policy, and practice. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/23482
65.
RomanoL.AngeliniG.ConsiglioP.FiorilliC. (2021). Academic resilience and engagement in high school students: The mediating role of perceived teacher emotional support. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 11(2), 334–344. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe11020025
66.
Saifon. (2019). ‘Opportunity’ is ‘precious’. In what ways can we ‘expand opportunities’ for our students?https://www.eef.or.th/saifon/
67.
SamohN.BoonmongkonP.OjanenT. T.SamakkeekaromR.JonasK. J.GuadamuzT. E. (2019). ‘It's an ordinary matter’: Perceptions of cyberbullying in Thai youth culture. Journal of Youth Studies, 22(2), 240–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2018.1495835
68.
SittisakR.RoekmongkolN. (2025). Developing opportunity-expanding schools’ (OES) STEM education in Thailand. Educational Process International Journal, 16, https://doi.org/10.22521/edupij.2025.16.200
69.
SmithB. W.DalenJ.WigginsK.TooleyE.ChristopherP.BernardJ. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972
70.
SokantatN.KanyajitS.PoonyarithS.ThanyasiriP.UnmarerngN. (2021). Thai culture: The foundation of school bullying. International Journal of Criminal Justice Science, 16(2), 369–384. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4756082
71.
TakviriyanunN. (2008). Development and testing of the Resilience Factors Scale for Thai adolescents. Nursing & Health Sciences, 10(3), 203–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-2018.2008.00398.x
ThapaA.CohenJ.GuffeyS.Higgins-D'AlessandroA. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83, 357–385. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654313483907
74.
ThornbergR. (2023). Longitudinal link between moral disengagement and bullying among children and adolescents: A systematic review. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 20(6), 1099–1129. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2023.2191945
75.
ThornbergR.JungertT. (2014). School bullying and the mechanisms of moral disengagement. Aggressive Behavior, 40(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21509
76.
ThornbergR.WänströmL.GiniG.VarjasK.MeyersJ.ElmelidR.JohanssonA.MellanderE. (2021). Collective moral disengagement and its associations with bullying perpetration and victimization in students. Educational Psychology, 41(8), 952–966. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1843005
77.
ThorvaldsenS.HansenK. T.ForsbergJ. T. (2024). Children and adolescents weathering the storm: Resilience in the presence of bullying victimization, harassment, and pandemic lockdown in northern Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 65(4), 735–746. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.13012
UngarM. (2021). Modeling multisystemic resilience: Connecting biological, psychological, social, and ecological adaptation in contexts of adversity. In UngarM. (Ed.), Multisystemic resilience: Adaptation and transformation in contexts of change. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190095888.003.0002
Van BredaA. (2018). A critical review of resilience theory and its relevance for social work. Social Work, 54, https://doi.org/10.15270/54-1-611
85.
WaasdorpT. E.FuR.ClaryL. K.BradshawC. P. (2022). School climate and bullying bystander responses in middle and high school. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2022.101412
86.
WangY.-J.ChenI.-H. (2023). A multilevel analysis of factors influencing school bullying in 15-year-old students. Children (Basel), 10(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/children10040653
YangJ.WangX.LeiL. (2020). Perceived school climate and adolescents’ bullying perpetration: A moderated mediation model of moral disengagement and peers’ defending. Children and Youth Services Review, 109, 104716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104716
89.
YangM.GuoH.ChuM.LengC.QuC.TianK.JingY.XuM.GuoX.YangL.LiX. (2022). Sex differences in traditional school bullying perpetration and victimization among adolescents: A chain-mediating effect. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(15), 9525. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159525
90.
YangY.LiuM.CaoN.LiX.ChenZ.KelifaM. O. (2023). School connectedness and psychological resilience as mediators in the relationship between childhood abuse and suicidal ideation among Chinese adolescents. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(1), 2172650. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2172650
91.
YosepI.HikmatR.MardhiyahA. (2023). School-Based nursing interventions for preventing bullying and reducing its incidence on students: A scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021577
92.
YosepI.HikmatR.MardhiyahA.PurnamaH. (2025). The role of nurses in psychoeducation for improving awareness the dangers of bullying among students: A quasi-experimental study. BMC Nursing, 24(1), 1466. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-025-03991-0
93.
ZulligK. J.CollinsR.GhaniN.PattonJ. M.HuebnerE. S.AjamieJ. (2014). Psychometric support of the school climate measure in large, diverse sample of adolescents: A replication and extension. Journal of School Health, 84(2), 82–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12124
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
