The employee-organization relationship (EOR) is a key component of organizational behavior. Researchers have consistently shown that employees who perceive that they are supported by their organizations (favorable EORs) tend to have positive attitudes and behave in a manner that helps the organization to reach its goals. For many years, the reciprocity norm (e.g. felt obligation) has been a widely accepted explanation for the EOR. Yet, despite calls to explore additional pathways, little work has examined other mediating mechanisms between favorable EORs and outcomes. We draw on the affect theory of social exchange to argue for the mediating effects of gratitude, felt obligation, and pride on the relationship between perceived organizational support (POS) and outcomes. Our results—from three field studies—show that (a) gratitude mediated the relationships of POS with extra-role performance aimed at aiding the organization, affective organizational commitment, and job satisfaction, (b) the mediating effect of gratitude was stronger than the mediating effect of felt obligation, and (c) gratitude made stronger contributions to extra-role performance and affective organizational commitment than did pride. We discuss theoretical and practical implications.
AlgoeS. B. (2012). Find, remind, and bind: The functions of gratitude in everyday relationships. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6, 455–469. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00439.x
2.
AlgoeS. B.GableS. L.MaiselN. C. (2010). It’s the little things: Everyday gratitude as a booster shot for romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 17(2), 217–233. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01273.x
3.
AllenN. J.MeyerJ. P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1990.tb00506.x
4.
AndersonJ. C.GerbingD. W. (1991). Predicting the performance of measures in a confirmatory factor analysis with a pretest assessment of their substantive validities. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(5), 732–740. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.76.5.732
5.
ArmeliS.EisenbergerR.FasoloP.LynchP. (1998). Perceived organizational support and police performance: The moderating influence of socioemotional needs. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(2), 288–297. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.83.2.288
BlauP. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
9.
BrislinR. (1986). The wording and translation of research instruments. In LonnerW. J.BerryJ. W. (Eds.), Field methods in cross-cultural research (pp. 137–164). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
10.
ByrneB. M. (2013). Structural equation modeling with EQS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Erlbaum.
11.
CaesensG.MariqueG.HaninD.StinglhamberF. (2016). The relationship between perceived organizational support and proactive behaviour directed towards the organization. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 25(3), 398–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432x.2015.1092960
12.
CaesensG.MariqueG.StinglhamberF. (2014). The relationship between perceived organizational support and affective commitment: More than reciprocity, it is also a question of organizational identification. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 13(4), 167–173. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000112
13.
CaesensG.StinglhamberF.DemoulinS.De WildeM. (2017). Perceived organizational support and employees’ well-being: The mediating role of organizational dehumanization. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 26, 527–540.
14.
ChanD. (2009). So why ask me? Are self-report data really that bad? In LanceC. E.VandenbergR. J. (Eds.), Statistical and methodological myths and urban legends: Doctrine, verity, and fable in the organizational and social sciences (pp. 309–336). England, UK: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
15.
ChopikW. J.NewtonN. J.RyanL. H.KashdanT. B.JardenA. J. (2019). Gratitude across the life span: Age differences and links to subjective well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(3), 292–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1414296
16.
Coyle-ShapiroJ. A. M.MorrowP. C.KesslerI. (2006). Serving two organizations: Exploring the employment relationship of contracted employees. Human Resource Management, 45(4), 561–583. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20132
17.
Coyle-ShapiroJ. A. M.ShoreL. M. (2007). The employee-organization relationship: Where do we go from here?Human Resource Management Review, 17(2), 166–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.03.008
18.
CropanzanoR.AnthonyE. L.DanielsS. R.HallA. V. (2017). Social exchange theory: A critical review with theoretical remedies. Academy of Management Annals, 11(1), 479–516. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2015.0099
19.
CropanzanoR.MitchellM. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31(6), 874–900. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206305279602
20.
DePauloB. M.BrittinghamG. L.KaiserM. K. (1983). Receiving competence-relevant help: Effects on reciprocity, affect, and sensitivity to the helper's nonverbally expressed needs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(5), 1045–1060. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1045
21.
DunhamR. B.SmithF. J. (1979). Organizational surveys: An internal assessment of organizational health. Northbrook, IL: Scott Foresman & Company.
22.
EisenbergerR.ArmeliS.RexwinkelB.LynchP. D.RhoadesL. (2001). Reciprocation of perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 42–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.42
EisenbergerR.Rhoades ShanockL.WenX. (2020). Perceived organizational support: Why caring about employees counts. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 7(1), 101–124. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-044917
25.
EisenbergerR.ShossM. K.KaragonlarG.Gonzalez-MoralesM. G.WickhamR. E.BuffardiL. C. (2014). The supervisor POS–LMX–subordinate POS chain: Moderation by reciprocation wariness and supervisor's organizational embodiment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(5), 635–656. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1877
26.
EisenbergerR.StinglhamberF. (2011). Perceived organizational support: Fostering enthusiastic and productive employees. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
27.
EmmonsR. A. (2016). Is gratitude queen of the virtues and ingratitude king of the vices? In CarrD. (Ed.), Perspectives on gratitude: An interdisciplinary approach (pp. 141–153). England, UK: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
28.
EmmonsR. A.MishraA. (2011). Why gratitude enhances well-being: What we know, what we need to know. In SheldonK. M.KashdanT. B.StegerM. F. (Eds.), Designing positive psychology: Taking stock and moving forward (pp. 248–262). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
29.
FisherJ. D. (1983). Recipient reactions to aid: The parameters of the field. In FisherJ. D.NadlerA.DePauloB. M. (Eds.), New directions in helping (pp. 3–14). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.
30.
FredricksonB. L. (2004). Gratitude, like other positive emotions, broadens and builds. In EmmonsR. A.McCulloughM. E. (Eds.), The psychology of gratitude (pp. 145–166). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
31.
FullerJ. B.BarnettT.HesterK.RelyeaC. (2003). A social identity perspective on the relationship between perceived organizational support and organizational commitment. The Journal of Social Psychology, 143(6), 789–791. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540309600432
32.
GordonA.ImpettE. A.KoganA.OveisC.KeltnerD. (2012). To have and to hold: Gratitude promotes relationship maintenance in intimate bonds. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(2), 257–274. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028723
33.
GouldnerA. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25(2), 161–178. https://doi.org/10.2307/2092623
34.
GrandeyA. A.FerrisD. L.MelloyR. C. (2018). A dual signal model of pride displays in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 38, 153–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2018.11.004
35.
GrandeyA. A.TamA. P.BrauburgerA. L. (2002). Affective states and traits in the workplace: Diary and survey data from young workers. Motivation and Emotion, 26, 31–55.
36.
GrantA. M.DuttonJ. E.RossoB. D. (2008). Giving commitment: Employee support programs and the prosocial sensemaking process. Academy of Management Journal, 51(5), 898–918. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2008.34789652
37.
GreenbaumR.BonnerJ.GrayT.MawritzM. (2020). Moral emotions: A review and research agenda for management scholarship. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 41(2), 95–114. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2367
38.
GreenbergM. S. (1980). A theory of indebtedness. In GergenK. J.GreenbergM. S.WillisR. H. (Eds.), Social exchange: Advances in theory and research (pp. 3–26). New York, NY: Plenum.
39.
GreenbergM. S.Bar-TelD. (1976). Indebtedness as a motive for acquisition of “helpful” information. Representative Research in Social Psychology, 7, 19–27.
40.
HinkinT. R. (1998). A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods, 1, 104–121. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442819800100106
41.
HuX.KaplanS. (2015). Is “feeling good” good enough? Differentiating discrete positive emotions at work. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1941
KimK. Y.MessersmithJ. G.EisenbergerR. (in press). Social distancing initiatives and perceived organizational support: It’s the intended beneficiary that counts. Group & Organization Management.
44.
KraemerT.GouthierM. H.HeidenreichS. (2017). Proud to stay or too proud to stay? How pride in personal performance develops and how it affects turnover intentions. Journal of Service Research, 20(2), 152–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670516673158
45.
KurtessisJ. N.EisenbergerR.FordM. T.BuffardiL. C.StewartK. A.AdisC. S. (2017). Perceived organizational support: A meta-analytic evaluation of organizational support theory. Journal of Management, 43(6), 1854–1884. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315575554
46.
LawlerE. J. (2001). An affect theory of social exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 107(2), 321–352. https://doi.org/10.1086/324071
47.
LewisM. (1995). Self-conscious emotions. American Scientist, 83, 68–78.
48.
LittleT. D.CunninghamW. A.ShaharG.WidamanK. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem0902_1
49.
LocklearL. R.SheridanS.KongD. T. (2022). Appreciating social science research on gratitude: An integrative review for organizational scholarship on gratitude in the workplace. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 44(2), 225–260. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2624
50.
LynchP. D.EisenbergerR.ArmeliS. (1999). Perceived organizational support: Inferior versus superior performance by wary employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(4), 467–483. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.467
51.
MariqueG.StinglhamberF.DesmetteD.CaesensG.De ZanetF. (2013) The relationship between perceived organizational support and affective commitment: A social identity perspective. Group & Organization Management, 38, 68–100.
52.
MarschallD. E.SanftnerJ.TangneyJ. P. (1994). The state shame and guilt scale. Fairfax, VA: George Mason University.
53.
McCulloughM. E.EmmonsR. A.TsangJ. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 112–127. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.112
54.
McCulloughM. E.KilpatrickS. D.EmmonsR. A.LarsonD. B. (2001). Is gratitude a moral affect?Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.249
55.
McCulloughM. E.TsangJ. A.EmmonsR. A. (2004). Gratitude in intermediate affective terrain: Links of grateful moods to individual differences and daily emotional experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2), 295–309. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.295
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (2017). Mplus user's guide. Muthén & Muthén.
58.
NgT. W. (2016). Embedding employees early on: The importance of workplace respect. Personnel Psychology, 69(3), 599–633. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12117
59.
NgT. W.FeldmanD. C. (2008). The relationship of age to ten dimensions of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(2), 392–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.392
OishiS.KooM.LimN.SuhE. M. (2019). When gratitude evokes indebtedness. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 11(2), 286–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12155
62.
OrtonyA.CloreG. L.CollinsA. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
63.
PanaccioA.VandenbergheC. (2009). Perceived organizational support, organizational commitment and psychological well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 75(2), 224–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.06.002
64.
PengC.NelissenR. M.ZeelenbergM. (2018). Reconsidering the roles of gratitude and indebtedness in social exchange. Cognition and Emotion, 32(4), 760–772. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2017.1353484
65.
PreacherK. J.SeligJ. P. (2012). Advantages of Monte Carlo confidence intervals for indirect effects. Communication Methods and Measures, 6(2), 77–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2012.679848
66.
RhoadesL.EisenbergerR. (2002). Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 698–714. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.698
67.
SchriesheimC. A.EisenbachR. J. (1995). An exploratory and confirmatory factor-analytic investigation of item wording effects on the obtained factor structures of survey questionnaire measures. Journal of Management, 21(6), 1177–1193. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639502100609
68.
ShoreL. M.Coyle-ShapiroJ. A.TetrickL. E. (2012). Expanding the boundaries and challenging the assumptions of the employee-organization relationship. In ShoreL. M.Coyle-ShapiroJ. A.TetrickL. E. (Eds.), The Employee-organization relationship: Applications for the 21st Century. England, UK: Psychology Press/Routledge.
69.
ShoreL. M.TetrickL. E.LynchP.BarksdaleK. (2006). Social and economic exchange, construct development and validation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(4), 837–867. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00046.x
70.
SpenceJ. R.BrownD. J.KeepingL. M.LianH. (2014). Helpful today, but not tomorrow? Feeling grateful as a predictor of daily organizational citizenship behaviors. Personnel Psychology, 67, 705–738.
71.
SwainS. D.WeathersD.NiedrichR. W. (2008). Assessing three sources of misresponse to reversed Likert items. Journal of Marketing Research, 45(1), 116–131. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.45.1.116
72.
TangneyJ. P.FischerK. W. (1995). Self-conscious emotions: The psychology of shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride. New York: Guilford Press.
73.
ThompsonE. R. (2007). Development and validation of an internationally reliable short-form of the positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38(2), 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022106297301
74.
ThompsonP. S.BergeronD. M.BolinoM. C. (2020). No obligation? How gender influences the relationship between perceived organizational support and organizational citizenship behavior. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(11), 1338–1350. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000481
75.
TracyJ. L.RobinsR. W. (2007). The psychological structure of pride: A tale of two facets. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 506–525.
76.
TriandisH. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Westview.
77.
TsangJ.-A. (2006). Gratitude and prosocial behaviour: An experimental test of gratitude. Cognition and Emotion, 20(1), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930500172341
78.
VollmannM.SprangS.van den BrinkF. (2019). Adult attachment and relationship satisfaction: The mediating role of gratitude toward the partner. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11-12), 3875–3886. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519841712
79.
WatkinsP.ScheerJ.OvnicekM.KoltsR. (2006). The debt of gratitude: Dissociating gratitude and indebtedness. Cognition & Emotion, 20(2), 217–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930500172291
80.
WatsonD.NaragonK. (2009). Positive affectivity: The disposition to experience positive emotional states. In The Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 207–215). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
WeissH. M.CropanzanoR. (1996). Affective Events Theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. In StawB. M.CummingsL. L. (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior: An annual series of analytical essays and critical reviews (pp. 1–74). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science/JAI Press.
83.
WinslowC. J.HuX.KaplanS. A.LiY. (2017). Accentuate the positive: Which discrete positive emotions predict which work outcomes?The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 20, 74–89.
84.
WongN.RindfleischA.BurroughsJ. E. (2003). Do reverse-worded items confound measures in cross-cultural consumer research? The case of the material values scale. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(1), 72–91. https://doi.org/10.1086/374697
85.
YuC.FrenkelS. J. (2013). Explaining task performance and creativity from perceived organizational support theory: Which mechanisms are more important?Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(8), 1165–1181. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1844
