The present study reveals how leadership effectiveness in project teams is dependent on the level of organizational tenure diversity. Data from 34 project teams showed that transformational leadership is related to organizational commitment, creative behavior, and job satisfaction, but only in teams with high organizational tenure diversity. By contrast, participative leadership has no impact on team innovativeness, team performance, and team conflict in teams with high organizational tenure diversity, yet is beneficial with respect to the same outcomes in teams that are low in organizational tenure diversity. Theoretical and practical implications for leading project teams and future research in this area are discussed.
AguinisH. (1995). Statistical power problems with moderated multiple-regression in management research. Journal of Management, 21, 1141-1158.
2.
AikenL. S.WestS. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
3.
AnconaD.CaldwellD. (1992). Bridging the boundary: External activity and performance in organizational teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 634-665.
4.
AshforthB.MaelF. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14, 20-39.
5.
BarlingJ.WeberT.KellowayE. (1996). Effects of transformational leadership training on attitudinal and financial outcomes: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 827-832.
6.
BassB. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industry, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
7.
BeckerT. (2005). Potential problems in the statistical control of variables in organizational research: A qualitative analysis with recommendations. Organizational Research Methods, 8, 274-289.
8.
BodenhausenG. (2010). Diversity in the person, diversity in the group: Challenges of identity complexity for social perception and social interaction. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 1-16.
9.
BonoJ. E.JudgeT. A. (2003). Self-concordance at work: Toward understanding the motivational effects of transformational leaders. Academy of Management Journal, 46, 554-571.
10.
BraunS.PeusC.WeisweilerS.FreyD. (2013). Transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and team performance: A multilevel mediation model of trust. Leadership Quarterly, 24, 270-283.
11.
BundersonJ.SutcliffeK. (2002). Comparing alternative conceptualizations of functional diversity in management teams: Process and performance effects. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 875-893.
12.
CabralesÁ. L.MedinaC. C.LavadoA. C.CabreraR. V. (2008). Managing functional diversity, risk taking and incentives for teams to achieve radical innovations. R&D Management, 38, 35-50.
13.
CarlsonK. D.WuJ. (2012). The illusion of statistical control: Control variable practice in management research. Organizational Research Methods, 15, 413-435.
14.
CastanoE.YzerbytV. Y.BourguignonD. (2003). We are one and I like it: The impact of entitativity on social identification. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 735-754.
15.
ChanslerP.SwamidassP.CammannC. (2003). Self-managing work teams: An empirical study of group cohesiveness in “natural work groups” at a Harley-Davidson motor company plant. Small Group Research, 34, 101-120.
16.
CharbonneauD.BarlingJ.KellowayE. (2001). Transformational leadership and sports performance: The mediating role of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 1521-1534.
17.
ChiN.HuangY.LinS. (2009). A double-edged sword? Exploring the curvilinear relationship between organizational tenure diversity and team innovation: The moderating role of team-oriented HR practices. Group & Organization Management, 34, 698-726.
18.
CollinsD. B.HoltonE. F. (2004). The effectiveness of managerial leadership development programs: A meta-analysis of studies from 1982 to 2001. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 15, 217-248.
19.
CorrellJ.ParkB. (2005). A model of the ingroup as a social resource. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 341-359.
20.
De PoelF. M.StokerJ. I.Van der ZeeK. I. (2012). Climate control? The relationship between leadership, climate for change and work outcomes. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23, 694-713.
21.
DionneS.YammarinoF.AtwaterL.SpanglerW. (2004). Transformational leadership and team performance. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 17, 177-193.
22.
DumdumU. R.LoweK. B.AvolioB. J. (2002). A meta-analysis of transformational and transactional leadership correlates of effectiveness and satisfaction: An update and extension. Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead, 2, 35-66.
23.
EvansM. (1985). A Monte Carlo study of the effects of correlated method variance in moderated multiple regression. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 36, 305-323.
24.
GellerE. (2002). Leadership to overcome resistance to change: It takes more than consequence control. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 22, 29-49.
25.
GilsonL. L.LimH. S.LucianoM. M.ChoiJ. N. (2013). Unpacking the cross-level effects of tenure diversity, explicit knowledge, and knowledge sharing on individual creativity. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 86, 203-222.
26.
GivensR. J. (2008). Transformational leadership: The impact on organizational and personal outcomes. Emerging Leadership Journeys, 1, 4-24.
27.
HarrisonD.KleinK. (2007). What’s the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32, 1199-1228.
28.
HarrisonD.PriceK.BellM. (1998). Beyond relational demography: Time and the effects of surface- and deep-level diversity on work group cohesion. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 96-107.
29.
HerseyP.BlanchardK.JohnsonD. (1996). Management of organizational behavior. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
30.
HouseR. J. (1971). A path goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, 321-338.
31.
HowellJ. P.BowenD. E.DorfmanP. W.KerrS.PodsakoffP. M. (1996). Substitutes for leadership: Effective alternatives to ineffective leadership. In SteersR. M.PorterL. W.BigleyG. A. (Eds.), Motivation and leadership at work (pp. 672-686). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
32.
HuangR.KahaiS.JesticeR. (2010). The contingent effects of leadership on team collaboration in virtual teams. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1098-1110.
33.
HuangX.IunJ.LiuA.GongY. (2010). Does participative leadership enhance work performance by inducing empowerment or trust?Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 122-143.
34.
HüttermannH.BoernerS. (2011). Fostering innovation in functionally diverse teams: The two faces of transformational leadership. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20, 833-854.
35.
JacksonS.JoshiA.ErhardtN. (2003). Recent research on team and organizational diversity: SWOT analysis and implications. Journal of Management, 29, 801-830.
36.
JamesL.DemareeR.WolfG. (1984). Estimating within-group interrater reliability with and without response bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 85-98.
37.
JanssenO. (2000). Job demands, perceptions of effort-reward fairness and innovative work behaviour. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73, 287-302.
38.
JehnK.MannixE. (2001). The dynamic nature of conflict: A longitudinal study of intragroup conflict and group performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 238-251.
39.
JoshiA.RohH. (2009). The role of context in work team diversity research: A meta-analytic review. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 599-628.
40.
JudgeT.PiccoloR. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 755-768.
41.
KahaiS.SosikJ.AvolioB. (1997). Effects of leadership style and problem structure on work group process and outcomes in an electronic meeting system environment. Personnel Psychology, 50, 121-146.
42.
KearneyE.GebertD. (2009). Managing diversity and enhancing team outcomes: The promise of transformational leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 77-89.
43.
KellerR. (2006). Transformational leadership, initiating structure, and substitutes for leadership: A longitudinal study of research and development project team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 202-210.
44.
KellowayE. K. (1998). Using LISREL for structural equation modeling: A researcher’s guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
45.
KerrS.JermierJ. M. (1978). Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 22, 375-403.
46.
KruglanskiA.PierroA.HigginsE. (2007). Regulatory mode and preferred leadership styles: How fit increases job satisfaction. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29, 137-149.
47.
KruglanskiA.ThompsonE.HigginsE.AtashM.PierroA.ShahJ.SpiegelS. (2000). To “do the right thing” or to “just do it”: Locomotion and assessment as distinct self-regulatory imperatives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 793-815.
48.
LeBretonJ. M.SenterJ. L. (2008). Answers to 20 questions about interrater reliability and interrater agreement. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 815-852.
49.
LeungA.ChiuC. (2010). Multicultural experience, idea receptiveness, and creativity. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41, 723-741.
50.
LinesR. (2004). Influence of participation in strategic change: Resistance, organizational commitment and goal achievement. Journal of Change Management, 4, 193-215.
51.
LovelaceK.ShapiroD. L.WeingartL. R. (2001). Maximizing cross-functional new product teams’ innovativeness and constraint adherence: A conflict communications perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 779-793.
52.
ManzC. (1986). Self-leadership: Toward an expanded theory of self-influence processes in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 11, 585-600.
53.
ManzC.SimsH. (1987). Leading workers to lead themselves: The external leadership of self-managing work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 32, 106-129.
54.
McGrathJ. E. (1962). Leadership behavior. Some requirements for leadership training. Washington, DC: U.S. Civil Service Commission, Office of Career Development.
55.
MorgesonF. P.De RueD. S.KaramE. P. (2010). Leadership in teams: A functional approach to understanding leadership structures and processes. Journal of Management, 36, 5-39.
56.
MowdayR.SteersR.PorterL. (1979). Measurement of organizational commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14, 224-247.
57.
MulderM.de JongR.KoppelaarL.VerhageJ. (1986). Power, situation, and leaders’ effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 566-570.
58.
MumfordM.ScottG.GaddisB.StrangeJ. (2002). Leading creative people: Orchestrating expertise and relationships. Leadership Quarterly, 13, 705-750.
59.
NishiiL.MayerD. (2009). Do inclusive leaders help to reduce turnover in diverse groups? The moderating role of leader-member exchange in the diversity to turnover relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 1412-1426.
60.
PaulusP. B.Van der ZeeK. I. (2015). Creative processes in diverse teams (108-131). In OttenS.van der ZeeK. I.BrewerM. B. (Eds.), Towards inclusive organizations: Successful diversity management at work. London, England: Taylor & Francis (.
61.
PearceC. (2007). The future of leadership development: The importance of identity, multi-level approaches, self-leadership, physical fitness, shared leadership, networking, creativity, emotions, spirituality and on-boarding processes. Human Resource Management Review, 17, 355-359.
62.
PearceC.SimsH. (2002). Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6, 172-197.
63.
PiccoloR.ColquittJ. (2006). Transformational leadership and job behaviors: The mediating role of core job characteristics. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 327-340.
64.
PodsakoffP.MacKenzieS.MoormanR.FetterR. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107-142.
65.
RasbashJ.BrowneW.GoldsteinH.YangM.PlewisI.HealyM.LewisT. (2000). A user’s guild to MLwiN. London, England: Institute of Education, University of London.
66.
SargentL.Sue-ChanC. (2001). Does diversity affect group efficacy? The intervening role of cohesion and task interdependence. Small Group Research, 32, 426-450.
67.
SchriesheimC.WuJ.ScanduraT. (2009). A meso measure? Examination of the levels of analysis of the multifactor leadership questionnaire. Leadership Quarterly, 20, 604-616.
68.
ShamirB.HouseR.ArthurM. (1993). The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self-concept based theory. Organization Science, 4, 577-594.
69.
ShinS.ZhouJ. (2007). When is educational specialization heterogeneity related to creativity in research and development teams? Transformational leadership as a moderator. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1709-1721.
70.
SomechA. (2002). Explicating the complexity of participative management: An investigation of multiple dimensions. Educational Administration Quarterly, 38, 341-371.
71.
SomechA. (2005). Directive versus participative leadership: Two complementary approaches to managing school effectiveness. Educational Administration Quarterly, 41, 777-800.
72.
SomechA. (2006). The effects of leadership style and team process on performance and innovation in functionally heterogeneous teams. Journal of Management, 32, 132-157.
73.
SrivastavaA.BartolK.LockeE. (2006). Empowering leadership in management teams: Effects on knowledge sharing, efficacy, and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 1239-1251.
74.
StewartG. (2006). A meta-analytic review of relationships between team design features and team performance. Journal of Management, 32, 29-55.
75.
StokerJ. I.GrutterinkH.KolkN. J. (2012). Do transformational CEOs always make the difference? The role of TMT feedback seeking behavior. Leadership Quarterly, 23, 582-592.
76.
StokerJ. I.LooiseJ.FisscherO.De JongR. (2001). Leadership and innovation: Relations between leadership, individual characteristics and the functioning of R&D teams. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12, 1141-1151.
77.
StokerJ. I.Van der HeijdenB. I. J. M. (2001). Competence development and appraisal in organizations. Journal of Career Development, 28, 97-113.
78.
SundstromE.McIntyreM.HalfhillT.RichardsH. (2000). Work groups: From the Hawthorne studies to work teams of the 1990s and beyond. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4, 44-67.
79.
ThompsonG.VecchioR. (2009). Situational leadership theory: A test of three versions. Leadership Quarterly, 20, 837-848.
80.
TungH. L.ChangY. H. (2011). Effects of empowering leadership on performance in management team: Mediating effects of knowledge sharing and team cohesion. Journal of Chinese Human Resources Management, 2, 43-60.
81.
TurnerJ. R. (2006). Towards a theory of project management: The nature of the functions of project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24, 277-279.
82.
Van der KamN. A.JanssenO.Van der VegtG. S.StokerJ. I. (2014). The role of vertical conflict in the relationship between leader self-enhancement and leader performance. Leadership Quarterly, 26, 267-281.
83.
Van der ZeeK. I.PaulusP.VosM.ParthasarathyN. (2009). The impact of group composition and attitudes towards diversity on anticipated outcomes of diversity in groups. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12, 257-280.
84.
Van KnippenbergD.SchippersM. (2007). Work group diversity. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 515-541.
85.
VroomV.H.JagoA.G. (1988). The new leadership: Managing participation in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
86.
VroomV.JagoA. (2007). The role of the situation in leadership. American Psychologist, 62, 17-24.
87.
VroomV.H.YettonP.W. (1973). Leadership and decision making. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
88.
WangG.OhI.CourtrightS. H.ColbertA. E. (2011). Transformational leadership and performance across criteria and levels: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of research. Group & Organization Management, 36, 223-270.
89.
WangX.HowellJ. (2010). Exploring the dual-level effects of transformational leadership on followers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 1134-1144.
90.
WestM. A. (2004). Effective teamwork: Practical lessons from organizational research. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
91.
WilliamsK.O’ReillyC. (1998). Demography and diversity in organizations: A review of 40 years of research. Research in Organizational Behavior, 20, 77-140.
92.
WuJ.TsuiA.KinickiA. (2010). Consequences of differentiated leadership in groups. Academy of Management Journal, 53, 90-106.
93.
YammarinoF.DionneS.ChunJ.DansereauF. (2005). Leadership and levels of analysis: A state-of-the-science review. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 879-919.
94.
YuklG. A. (2010). Leadership in organizations. London, England: Prentice Hall.
95.
YunS.FarajS.SimsH. P. (2005). Contingent leadership and effectiveness of trauma resuscitation teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1288-1296.
96.
ZhouJ.GeorgeJ. (2001). When job dissatisfaction leads to creativity: Encouraging the expression of voice. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 682-696.
