U.S. scholarship on corporate and governmental illegality has often drawn examples from the U.S. defense industry, but comparative and international examples have not been widely used. European defense corporations have likewise been involved in extensive abuses and criminal activities, which have often involved the illegal export of weapons to prohibited destinations. This is illustrated by the massive sanctions violations perpetrated by arms manufacturers during the Iran-Iraq War of 1980-1988, when a clandestine corporate network emerged to meet the illicit demand for weapons. This study considers the economic and political roots of the widespread corporate deviance that was apparent in those years and further emphasizes the parallels between that situation and instances of organized or syndicate criminality.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adams, G. (1982). The politics of defense contracting. New York, NY: Transaction Publishers.
2.
Albanese, J. (1982a). Organizational offenders. Niagara Falls, NY: Apocalypse.
3.
Albanese, J. (1982b). What Lockheed and La Cosa Nostra have in common. Crime and Delinquency, 28153-170.
4.
Albanese, J. (1985). The Lockheed foreign payments case ten years later. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 9111-118.
5.
Arlinghaus, B. E. (1983). Arms for Africa. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
6.
The arming of Iraq. (1990, September 11). [Television documentary, broadcast on PBS Frontline series]
7.
Arms and the imam . (1987, September 18). Private Eye, p. 25-25.
8.
Bailey, M. (1979). Oilgate: The sanctions scandal. London, England: Coronet.
9.
Block, A. A. (1985). Poisoning for profit. New York, NY: William Morrow.
10.
Block, A. A. , & Chambliss, W. (1981). Organizing crime. New York, NY: Elsevier.
11.
Bohme, K.-R. , & Olsson, U. (1981). The Swedish aircraft industry. In B. F. Cooling (Ed.), War, Business and World Military-Industrial Complexes (pp. 146-170). New York, NY: Kennikat Press.
12.
Boyes, R. (1987a, September 7). Mafia links with Tehran shock Italy. Times of London, p. 4-4.
13.
Boyes, R. (1987b, October 19). Italian dynasty is shaken by scandal. Times of London, p. 4-4.
14.
Boyes, R. (1987c, October 19). Italians seize guns on freighter. Times of London, p. 3-3.
15.
Braithwaite, J. (1989). Criminological theory and organizational crime. Justice Quarterly, 6(3) 333-358.
16.
Brogan, P. , & Zarca, A. (1983). Deadly business. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
17.
Cannizzo, C. (Ed.). (1980). The gun merchants: Politics and policies of the major arms suppliers. New York, NY: Pergamon.
18.
Cartel tales . (1987, October 2). Private Eye, p. 25-25
19.
Clarke, R. V. , & Mayhew, P. (1980). Designing crime out. London, England: HMSO.
20.
Clinard, M. B. (1983). Corporate ethics and crime. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing Company.
21.
Clinard, M. B. , & Yeager, P. C. (1980). Corporate crime. New York, NY: The Free Press.
22.
Coleman, J. W. (1985). The criminal elite. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.
23.
Collier, B. (1980). Arms and the men. London, England: Hamish Hamilton.
24.
Colour section. (1987a, September 4). Private Eye, p. 3-3.
25.
Colour section. (1987b, November 27). Private Eye, p. 3-3.
26.
Donovan, P. , Rodgers, P., & Laurance, B. (1989, September 24). DTI set to investigate Ferranti Group. Guardian Weekly, p. 3-3.
27.
Dorfer, I. (1983). Arms deal The selling of the F-16. New York, NY: Praeger Publishers.
28.
Edmonds, M. (Ed.). (1981). International arms procurement: New directions. New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
29.
Engelberg, S. (1990, September 3). Polish arms makers adjust to peace. New York Times, p. A7-A7.
30.
Engelmann, B. (1968). The weapons merchants. New York, NY: Crown.
31.
Erlanger, S. (1990, May 6). Rush for resources impels a new Asia arms race. New York Times, section A, p. 14-14.
32.
Faligot, R. , & Krop, P. (1989). La piscine. Oxford, England: Blackwell.
33.
Fisk, R. (1987, June 17-19). Inside the arms trade [3-part series]. Times of London.
34.
Fisse, B. , & Braithwaite, J. C. (1985). Corrigible corporations and unruly law. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University Press.
35.
Fitzgerald, A. E. (1989). The Pentagonists. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
36.
Frank, N. , & Lombness, M. (1988). Controlling corporate illegality. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Company.
37.
Frankel, G. (1990, September 23). How everybody rushed to arm Saddam Hussein. Guardian Weekly, p. 17-17.
38.
Franklin, R. (1986). The defender: The story of General Dynamics. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
39.
Frears, J. (1988-1989). Not sex, the abuse of power: Political scandal in France. Corruption and Reform, 3(3) 307-322.
40.
Freeman, R. (1989). Death of a statesman: The solution to the murder of Olof Palme. London, England: Hale.
41.
Friedman, A. (1990). Agnelli: FIAT and the network of Italian power. New York, NY: New American Library.
42.
Fuhrman, P. (1988, February 22). The road to bankruptcy. Forbes, pp. 94-96.
43.
Fuhrman, P. (1989a, January 23). Goering's legacy. Forbes, pp. 65-67.
44.
Fuhrman, P. (1989b, March 20). Herr Reuter takes to the skies. Forbes, pp. 88-94.
45.
Gaetner, G. (1987, October 30). Luchaire: Les obus rebondissent. L'Express, pp. 21-23.
46.
Gaetner, G. (1988, March 25). Luchaire: Transit a Panama. L'Express, pp. 16-19.
47.
Geis, G. , & Meier, R. F. (1977). White-collar crime. New York, NY: The Free Press.
48.
Goodwin, J. (1985). Brotherhood of arms. New York, NY: Times Books.
49.
Greenhouse, S. (1987, November 2). An Iran affair is emerging in France. New York Times, p. A3-A3.
50.
Greenhouse, S. (1990, August 29). Slovaks are hurt by arms sales ban. New York Times, p. A6-A6.
51.
Haberman, C. (1988, October 24). Rome inquiry seeks arms deal suspect's ties to effort on hostages. New York Times, p. A5-A5.
52.
Harkavy, R. E. (1975). The arms trade and international systems. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
53.
Heavy petyn . (1987, November 13). Private Eye, p. 25-25
54.
Hochstedtler, E. (1984). Corporations as criminals. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing Company.
55.
Howe, R. W. (1980). Weapons: The international game of arms, money and diplomacy. New York, NY: Doubleday.
56.
Isnard, J. (1987a, November 3). Le Rapport Barba fournit des pistes pour la recherche des beneficiaires des commissions. Le Monde, p 1-1.
57.
Isnard, J. (1987b, November 4). Le Rapport Barba met directement en cause un proche collaborateur de M. Hernu. Le Monde, p. 1-1.
58.
It's a MOD world. (1988, March 18). Private Eye, p. 25-25.
59.
Jenkins, P. (1989). The assassination of Olof Palme: Evidence and ideology. Contemporary Crises, 1315-33.
60.
Kapstein, J. (1987, September 21). As Stockholm lays siege to Nobel....Business Week, p. 46-46.
61.
Kolodziej, E. A. (1988). Making and marketing arms: The French experience and its implications for the international system. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
62.
Kotz, N. (1988). Wild blue yonder: Money, politics and the B-i bomber. New York, NY: Pantheon.
63.
Landgren, S. (1989). Embargo disimplemented: South Africa's military industry. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
64.
McCartney, L. (1988). Friends in high places. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
65.
Milhollin, G. (1989, January 4). Bonn's proliferation policy. New York Times, p. A13-A13.
66.
Neuman, S. G. , & Harkavy, R. E. (Eds.). (1979). Arms transfers in the modern world. New York, NY: Praeger Publishers.
67.
Nobel's price. (1987, October 30). Private Eye, p. 26-26.
68.
O'Ballance, E. (1988). The Gulf War. London, England: Brassey's Defense Publishers.
69.
Pear, R. (1990, June 21). Arms sales to Third World said to decline sharply. New York Times, p. A11-A11.
70.
Rasor, D. (1985). The Pentagon underground. New York, NY: Times Books.
71.
Reader, W. J. (1970-1975). Imperial Chemical Industries: A history (Vols. 1,2). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
72.
Regehr, E. (1987). Arms Canada. Toronto, Canada: James Lorimer.
73.
Reuter, P. (1983). Disorganized crime. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
74.
Safire, W. (1990, May 25). Lavoro unfolds. New York Times, p. A17-A17.
75.
Sampson, A. (1977). The arms bazaar. London, England: Hodder.
76.
Samstag, T. (1987, July 11). The scandals of Scandinavia. Spectator, pp. 10-11.
77.
Sanger, D. E. (1987, October 23). Bigger sale to Soviet by Norway. New York Times, pp. D1-D2.
78.
Scott, R. (1988, January 30). The cult of the Agnellis. Spectator, pp. 10-11.
79.
Sherman, L. W. (1978). Scandal and reform. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
80.
Smith, D. (1985). White-collar crime, organized crime and business establishment. In P. Wickham & C. Dailey (Eds.), White-collar and economic crime (pp. 84-103). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
81.
Stand by your imam. (1987, August 21). Private Eye, p. 25-25.
82.
Sterling, C. (1990). The octopus. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
83.
Symonds, W. C. (1987, September 21). Irangate unfolds in Italy. Business Week, p. 33-33.
84.
Teile sind mehr als das Ganze . (1989). Der Spiegel, 37, 110-113.
85.
Thayer, G. (1969). The war business: The international trade in armaments. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
86.
Timmerman, K. R. (1987, July 24). The war must go on. New Statesman, pp. 13-14.
87.
Toolis, K. (1990, August 26). The man behind Iraq's supergun. New York Times Magazine, pp. 46-77.
88.
Trading in terror. (1987, October 16). Private Eye, p. 25-25.
89.
Tyler, P. (1986). Running critical: The silent war, Rickover and General Dynamics. New York, NY: Perennial.
90.
Vaughan, D. (1984). Controlling unlawful organizational behavior. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
91.
Webster, P. (1987, November 6). Amused and silent. Guardian, p. 9-9.
92.
Wilkins, L. T. (1965). Social deviance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
