Secrecy and Persistent Problems in Sexual Assault Victims

Abstract

A substantial number of victims of sexual assault refrain from disclosing to others the victimizing episode and its emotional consequences. A prospective study (n = 36 rape victims reporting theirvictimization to the police) and a retrospective study (n = 33) were conducted to examine the determinants of postponed disclosure and its impact on persistent problems. In the prospective study the time interval between trauma and disclosure was at most one month. In the retrospective study 33 percent postponed disclosure for two years or more. Both studies revealed that postponed disclosure is associated with type of perpetrator: Victims of intimate perpetrators were more inclined to postpone reporting than victims of unknown perpetrators. Postponed disclosure predicted health problems in both studies. In the prospective study postponed disclosure predicted frequency of visits to the doctor and use of medication. Initial feelings of numbness contributed to the use of medication as well. In the retrospective study postponed disclosure predicted psychosomatic complaints and use of medication, even when the time between the assault and the interview was taken into account. Type of perpetrator did not moderate the correlation between postponed disclosure and health problems. Some implications for victim support will be discussed.

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

American Psychiatric Association (APA) . (1994). Diagnosticand statisticalmanual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Banks, A. (1997, June-July). A relational approach to the neurobiology of PTSD. Paper presented at the Fifth European Conference on Traumatic Stress, Maastricht, The Netherlands.

Berenbaum, H. , & James, T. (1994). Correlates and antecedents of alexithymia. Psychosomatic Medicine, 56, 353-359.

Bermond, B. , Vorst, H. , Gerritsen, W. , & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (in press). Psychometric properties of the Amsterdam Alexithymia Scale. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam.

Dahl, S. (1993). Rape: A hazard to health. Oslo, Norway: Scandinavian University Press.

Derogatis, L. R. , Lipman, R. S. , & Civi, L. (1973). SCL-90 an outpatient rating scale-preliminary report. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 9, 13-27.

Ensink, B. J. , & Van Berlo, W. (1999). Indringende herinneringen [Intrusive memories]. Eburon, Delft, The Netherlands: NISSO Publications.

Ensink, B. J. , Winkel, F. W. , & Van Berlo (submitted). Crime victims, alexithymia, numbness and posttraumatic stress. International Review of Victimology.

Foa, E. B. (1995). Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PDS): Manual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems, Inc.

10.

Frenken, J. , Ruitenberg D. , & Rombouts, S. (1995). Terugvechten: Verzet van vrou-wen tegen verkrachting. Eburon, Delft, The Netherlands: NISSO Publications.

11.

Horowitz, M. J. (1986). Stress response syndromes. Northvale, NJA London: Jason Aronson.

12.

Litz, B. T. , Schlener, W. E. , Weathers, F. W. , Caddell, J. M. , Fairbank, J. A. , & LaVange, L. M. (1997). Predictors of emotional numbing in posttraumatic stress. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10(4), 607-617.

13.

Ministry of Education, Culture and Science . (1992). Project Preventie Seksuele Intimidatie in het Onderwajs. Utrecht, The Netherlands: PPSI.

14.

Pennebaker, J. W. (1985). Traumatic experience and psychosomatic disease: Exploring the roles of behavioral inhibition, obsession and confiding. Canadian Psychology, 26, 82-94.

15.

Pennebaker, J. W. (1993). Putting stress into words: Health, linguistic, and therapeutic implications. Behavioral Respiratory Therapy, 31, 539-548.

16.

Pennebaker, J. W. (1993, 1995). Emotion, disclosure and health. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

17.

Pennebaker, J. W. , Barger, S. D. , & Tiebout, J. (1989). Disclosure of traumas and health among holocaust survivors. Psychosomatic Medicine, 51, 577-589.

18.

Pennebaker, J. W. , Hughes, C. F. , & O'Heeron, R. C. (1987). The psychophysiology of confession: Linking inhibitory and psychosomatic processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(4), 781-793.

19.

Rime, B. (1995). Mental rumination: Social sharing and the recovery from emotional exposure. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure and health (pp. 271-292). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

20.

Salovey, P. , Mayer, J. D. , Goldman, S. L. , Turvey, C. , & Palfai, T. P. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity, and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the trait meta-mood scale. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure and health (pp. 121-134). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

21.

Sifneos P. E. (1972). Short-timepsychotherapy and emotional crisis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

22.

Taylor, G. J. (1987). Alexithymia: Concept, measurement, and implications for treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 725-732.

23.

Taylor, G. J. , Bagby, M. , & Parker, J. A. (Eds.). (1997). Disorder of affect regulation: Alexithymia in medical andpsychiatric illness. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

24.

Ullman, S. E. (1996a). Do social reactions to sexual assault victims vary by support provider? Violence and Victims, 11(2), 143-157.

25.

Ullman, S. E. (1996b). Social reactions, coping strategies, and self-blame attributions in adjustment to sexual assault. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 505-526.

26.

Ullman, S. E. , & Siegel, J. M. (1993). Victim-offender relationship and sexual assault. Violence and Victims, 8(2), 121-134.

27.

Vorst, H. , & Bermond, B. (2001). The validity and reliability of the Bermond-Vorst Questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 413-434.

28.

Wegner, D. M. , & Lane, J. D. (1995). From secrecy to psychopathology. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure and health (pp. 25-46). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

29.

Wegner, D. M. , Schneider, D. J. , Carter, S. R. , & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 5-13.

30.

Westhorp, G. , & Annan, L. (2000, August). Theyoungpeople 's rape prevention project. Paper presented at the 10th International Symposium on Victimology, Montreal, Canada.

31.

Wyatt, G. E. , Notgrass, C. M. , & Newcomb, M. (1990). Internal and external mediators of women's rape experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 153-176.