Using a psychodynamic perspective on intergroup relations, it is suggested that in-groups create enemy out-groups to avoid dealing with internally generated, emotionally laden issues—the group shadow—that exist within the in-group. In-groups develop an exaggerated view of themselves—the social mask—to sustain an illusion of harmony, homogeneity, and cohesiveness by which they can avert the group shadow. Using a specific consulting-client example, intergroup mirroring is discussed as a method by which in-groups can acknowledge ownership of their social masks and projected shadows. It is proposed that bringing both the group shadow and masking into consciousness fosters reparation within and between groups.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alderfer, C.
(1977). Group and intergroup relations. In J. Hackman & L. Suttle (Eds.), Improving life at work (pp. 227-296). Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear.
2.
Blake, R.
, & Mouton, J. (1961). Reactions to intergroup competition under win-lose conditions. Management Science, 7, 420-455.
3.
Brewer, M.
(1986). The role of ethnocentrism in intergroup conflict. In S. Worchel and W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 88-102). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
4.
Coser, L. A.
(1956). The functions of social conflict. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
5.
Frank, J. D.
(1980). The nuclear arms race-Socio psychological aspects. American Journal of Public Health, 70(9), 950-952.
6.
Gemmill, G.
(1986). The dynamics of the group shadow in intergroup relations. Small Group Behavior, 17(2), 229-240.
7.
Gemmill, G.
, & Costello, M. (1990). Group mirroring as a means for exploring the group shadow: A perspective for organizational consultation. Consultation, 9(4), 277-291.
8.
Gemmill, G.
, & Wynkoop, C. (1990). The psychodynamics of the client-consultant nexus in organizational process consulting. Consultation: An International Journal, 9(2), 129-140.
9.
Gilmore, T.
, & Krantz, J. (1985). Projective identification in the consulting relationship: Exploring the unconscious dimension of a client system. Human Relations, 38(12), 200-212.
10.
Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry
. (1987). Us and them: The psychology of ethnonationalism. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
11.
Hinkle, S.
, & Schopler, J. (1986). Bias in the evaluation of in-group and out-group performance. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 196-212). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
12.
Hirschhorn, L. A.
(1988). The workplace within: Psychodynamics of organizational life. Cambridge: MIT Press.
13.
Jacobi, J.
(Ed.). (1970). C. G. Jung: Psychological reflections. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
14.
Jung, C. G.
(1958). Flying saucers: A modern myth of things seen in the sky. In G. Adler, M. Fordham, W. McGuire, & H. Read (Eds.), The collected works of C. G. Jung (Vol. 10). Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
15.
Keen, S.
(1986). Faces of the enemy: Reflections of the hostile imagination. San Francisco: Harper & Row.
16.
Klein, M.
(1946). Notes on some schizoid mechanisms. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 27, 99-110.
17.
Klein, M.
, & Riviere, J. (1964). Love, hate, and reparation. New York: Norton.
18.
Levine, R. A.
, & Campbell, D. T. (1972). Ethnocentrism and theories of conflict, ethnic attitudes, and group behavior. New York: Wiley.
19.
McClure, B. A.
(1990). The group mind: Generative and regressive groups. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 15, 159-170.
20.
Quattrone, G. A.
(1986). On the perception of a group's variability. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 25-48). Chicago. Nelson-Hall.
21.
Smith, K. K.
, & Berg, D. N. (1987). Paradoxes of group life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
22.
Stein, H. F.
(1982). Adversary symbiosis and complementary group dissociations. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 6, 55-83.
23.
Volkan, V. D.
(1988). The need to have enemies: Theories of conflict, ethnic attitudes, and group behavior. New York: Wiley.
