Charismatic leaders present intriguing examples of the use of power through language. The prevailing neo-charismatic perspective, however, is based predominately on Western theories and research examining U.S. presidents. This study moves beyond this sample by examining language differences between a moral and a toxic leader. Content analysis was used to explore the rhetoric of Martin Luther King Jr. and Adolf Hitler, whose distinct motives play out over their careers and during crises. Although some differences were predictable (i.e., Martin Luther King Jr. used more Optimistic language, whereas Hitler was higher in Power and Aggression), the changes over time suggest keys to their differing motives. Among other findings, Martin Luther King Jr. was remarkably consistent in his rhetoric, whereas Hitler used increasing Power and Aggressive language as his career progressed. While not providing definitive answers, these preliminary results suggest that further study is warranted into the complex interactions between rhetoric and leadership.
AbelT. (1966). Why Hitler came into power. New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
2.
ApplebomeP. (2008, January13). Is eloquence overrated?The New York Times, p. 43.
3.
BeyerJ. M. (1999). Two approaches to studying charismatic leadership: Competing or complementary?Leadership Quarterly, 10, 575-588.
4.
BlighM. C.KohlesJ. C.MeindlJ. R. (2004a). Charisma under crisis: Presidential leadership, rhetoric, and media responses before and after 9/11. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 211-239.
5.
BlighM. C.KohlesJ. C.MeindlJ. R. (2004b). Charting the language of leadership: A methodological investigation of President Bush and the crisis of 9/11. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 562-574.
6.
BlighM. C.RobinsonJ. L. (2010, October). Was Gandhi charismatic? Exploring the rhetorical leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. Leadership Quarterly, 21, 844-855.
7.
BoderD. (1940). The adjective-verb quotient: A contribution to the psychology of language. Psychology Record, 3, 310-343.
8.
BullockA. (1961). Hitler: A study in tyranny. New York, NY: Bantam Books.
9.
CongerJ. A.KanungoR. N. (1988). Behavioral dimensions of charismatic leadership. In CongerJ. A. (Ed.), Charismatic leadership: The elusive factor in organizational effectiveness (pp. 78-97). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
10.
Den HartogD. N.HouseR. J.HangesP. J.Ruiz-QuintanillaS. A.DorfmanP. W. (1999). Culture specific and cross-culturally generalizable implicit leadership theories: Are attributes of charismatic/transformational leadership universally endorsed?Leadership Quarterly, 10, 219-256.
11.
Den HartogD. N.VerburgR. M. (1997). Charisma and rhetoric: The communicative techniques of international business leaders. Leadership Quarterly, 8, 355-391.
12.
EmrichC. G.BrowerH. H.FeldmanJ. M.GarlandH. (2001). Images in words: Presidential rhetoric, charisma, and greatness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46, 527-557.
13.
ErezA.MisangyiV. F.JohnsonD. E.LaPineM. A. (2008). Stirring the hearts of followers: Charismatic leadership as the transferal of affect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 602-615.
14.
GalvinB. M.WaldmanD. A.BalthazardP. (2010). Visionary communication qualities as mediators of the relationship between narcissism and the attributions of leader charisma. Personnel Psychology, 63, 509-537.
15.
GellisM. (2002). Leadership, rhetoric, and the polis. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 32, 199-208.
16.
HartR. P. (2000). DICTION 5.0: The text analysis program. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
17.
HartR. P.JarvisS. (1997). Political debate: Forms, styles, and media. American Behavioral Scientist, 40, 1095-1122.
18.
HolladayS. J.CoombsT. W. (1994). Speaking of visions and visions being spoken: An exploration of the effects of content and delivery on perceptions of leader charisma. Management Communication Quarterly, 8, 165-190.
19.
HouseR. J. (1999). Weber and the neo-charismatic leadership paradigm: A response to Beyer. Leadership Quarterly, 10, 563-574.
20.
HouseR. J.ShamirB. (1993). Toward the integration of transformational, charismatic, and visionary theories of leadership. In ChemersM.AymanR. (Eds.), Leadership: Perspectives and research directions (pp. 81-107). New York, NY: Academic Press.
21.
KellermanB. (2004). Bad Leadership. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
22.
KingC. S. (1993). The Martin Luther King Jr., companion: Quotations from the speeches, essays, and books of Martin Luther King Jr. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
23.
Lipman-BlumenJ. (2005). The allure of toxic leaders: Why we follow destructive bosses and corrupt politicians—and how we can survive them. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
24.
McAdamsD. P. (1985). Power, intimacy and the life story. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.
25.
McClellandD. C. (1975). Power: The inner experience. New York, NY: Irvington.
26.
McClellandD. C.BurnhamD. H. (1976, March–April). Power is the great motivator. Harvard Business Review, 54, 100-110.
27.
MorrisR. (1994). Computerized content analysis in management research: A demonstration of advantages & limitations. Journal of Management, 20, 903-931.
28.
OatesS. B. (1982). Let the trumpet sound: The life of Martin Luther King Jr. New York, NY: Penguin.
29.
SeyranianV.BlighM. (2008). Presidential charismatic leadership: Exploring the rhetoric of social change. Leadership Quarterly, 19, 54-76.
30.
ShamirB.ArthurM. B.HouseR. J. (1994). The rhetoric of charismatic leadership: A theoretical extension, a case study, and implications for research. Leadership Quarterly, 5, 25-42.
31.
SydserffR.WeetmanP. (2002). Developments in content analysis: A transitivity index and DICTION scores. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 15, 523-545.
32.
TetenR. L. (2003). Evolution of the modern rhetorical presidency: Presidential presentation and development of the state of the union address. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 33, 333-346.
33.
WeberM. (1947) Power, authority, and imperative control. In HendersonA. M.ParsonsT. (Eds.), The theory of social and economic organizations (pp. 87-157). New York, NY: Free Press.
34.
WestM. D. (2001). The future of computer content analysis: Trends, unexplored lands, and speculations. In WestM. D. (Ed.), Theory, method, and practice in computer content analysis (pp. 159-176). Westport, CT: Ablex.
35.
WinterD. G. (1993). Power affiliation and war: Three tests of a motivational model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 532-545.
36.
WinterD. G. (1999). A motivational analysis of the Clinton first term and the 1996 presidential campaign. Leadership Quarterly, 9, 367-376.
37.
YuklG. (2006). Leadership in organizations (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
38.
YuthasK.RogersR.DillardJ. F. (2002). Communicative action and corporate business reports. Journal of Business Ethics, 41, 141-157.
