Scholarly and anecdotal evidence suggests that despite an increasing tolerance for diversity among many Americans, workplace discrimination is on the rise. This article addresses the role that learning, or more specifically barriers to learning, plays in the perpetuation of discrimination. The authors use several organizationally based learning theories to illustrate ways in which firms may fail to learn how to manage diversity challenges effectively, such as a discrimination lawsuit. They conclude the article with two relatively successful learning situations involving the Georgia Power Corporation and the Denny’s restaurant chain, both of which have faced discrimination lawsuits in recent years. They use this discussion to highlight reactive versus reflective learning strategies and how each may lead to successful discrimination lawsuit resolution.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Argyris, C. (1977). Double loop learning in organizations. Harvard Business Review, 55, 115-125.
2.
Argyris, C. (1990). Overcoming organizational defenses. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
3.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1978). Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
4.
Baker, W., & Sinkula, J. (1999). The synergistic effect of market orientation and learning orientation on organizational performance. Journal of Academy of Marketing Science, 27, 411-427.
5.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
6.
Benoit, W. L. (1995). Accounts, excuses, and apologies: A theory of image restoration strategies. Albany: State University of New York Press.
7.
Brief, A. P., & Hayes, E. (1997). The continuing “American dilemma”: Studying racism in organizations. In C. L. Cooper & D. M. Rousseau (Eds.), Trends in organizational behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 89-105) New York: John Wiley.
8.
Bueno, J. (1997, September 22). Home Depot’s agreement to settle suit could cut 3rd quarter earnings by 21%. Wall Street Journal, p. B18.
9.
Cyert, R., & March, J. G. (1963). A behavioral theory of the firm. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
10.
Deogun, N. (1999, May 20). Coke was told in ’95 of need for diversity. Wall Street Journal, p. A3.
11.
Eisenhardt, K. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy Of Management Review, 14, 532-550.
12.
Elsbach, K. D. (1994). Managing organizational legitimacy in the California cattle industry. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39, 57-73.
13.
Elsbach, K. D., & Sutton, R. I. (1992). Acquiring organizational legitimacy through illegitimate actions: A marriage of institutional and impression management theories. Academy of Management Journal, 5, 532-550.
Glynn, M. A., Lant, T. K., & Milliken, F. J. (1994). Mapping learning processes in organizations: A multilevel framework linking learning and organizing. Advances in Managerial Cognition & Organizational Information Processing, 5, 43-83.
16.
Hargadon, A., & Sutton, R. (1997). Technology brokering and innovation in a product development firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 716-749.
17.
Harris, N. (1996, April 1). Revolt at the deli counter: A sex discrimination suit against Publix may galvanize unions. Business Week, 32.
18.
Hemphill, H., & Haines, R. (1997). Discrimination, harassment, and the failure of diversity training: What to do. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
19.
Herriott, S., Levinthal, D., & March, J. G. (1988). Learning from experience in organizations. In J. G. March (Ed.), Decisions and organizations (pp. 219-227). New York: Basil Blackwell. (Original work published 1985)
20.
Hilton, J., & von Hippel, W. (1996). Stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 237-271.
21.
Ibarra, H. (1992). Homophily and differential returns: Sex differences in network structure and access in an advertising firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 422-447.
22.
Ibarra, H. (1993). Personal networks of women and minorities in management: A conceptual framework. Academy of Management Review, 18, 56-87.
23.
Ibarra, H. (1995). Race, opportunity, and diversity of social circles in managerial networks. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 673-703.
24.
Jacobs, K. (2000, July 28). Georgia Power hit with bias suit. Wall Street Journal, p. A1.
25.
James, E. H. (2000). Race-related differences in promotions and support: Underlying effects of human and social capital. Organization Science, 11, 493-508.
26.
James, E. H., Brief, A. P., Dietz, J., & Cohen, R. (2001). Prejudice matters: Understanding the reactions of Whites to affirmative action programs targeted to benefit Blacks. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1120-1128.
27.
James, E. H., & Wooten, L. P. (2000, August 7). Being in the spotlight: How firms respond to public diversity crises. Paper presented at the Academy of Management meeting, Toronto, Canada.
28.
James, E. H., & Wooten, L. P. (2002). Actions speak louder than words: Impression management techniques for managing discrimination lawsuits (Working Paper Series). Charlottesville: University of Virginia, Darden Graduate School of Business.
29.
Kanter, R. M. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. New York: Basic Books.
30.
Kransdorff, A. (1997). Fight organizational memory lapse. Workforce, 76(9), 34-40.
31.
Kravitz, D. A., & Platania, J. (1993). Attitudes and beliefs about affirmative action: Effects of target and of respondent sex and ethnicity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 928-938.
32.
Lefkowitz, J. (1994). Race as a factor in job placement: Serendipitous findings of “ethnic drift.” Personnel Psychology, 47, 497-313.
33.
Levinthal, D., & March, J. G. (1988). A model of adaptive organizational search. In J. G. March, (Ed.), Decisions and organizations (pp. 187-218). New York: Basil Blackwell. (Original work published 1981)
34.
Levitt, B., & March, J. (1988). Organizational learning. Annual Review of Sociology, 14, 319-340.
35.
Matthews, J. (1996). Organizational foundations of economic learning. Human Systems Management, 15, 113-124.
36.
Meyer, J., & Rowan, E. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83, 340-363.
37.
Nelson, S., & Winter, R. (1982). An evolutionary theory of economic change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
38.
Oliver, C. (1991). Strategic responses to institutional processes. Academy of Management Review, 16(1), 145-179.
39.
Poe, J. (2000, September 30). Making sure diversity gets a chance: Up close Harriett Watkins, external manager of Georgia Power. Atlanta Journal-Constitution, p. H2.
40.
Pomerenke, P. J. (1998). Class action sexual harassment lawsuit: A study in crisis communication. Human Resource Management, 37(3), 207-219.
41.
Quinn, M. (2000a, July 29). Ga. Power learns from Coca-Cola bias suit cases similar: Utility’s response shows lessons gleaned from soft drink giant’s actions. Atlanta Journal-Constitution, p. F1.
42.
Quinn, M. (2000b, August 30). Ga. Power says five nooses displayed. Atlanta Journal-Constitution, p. F1.
43.
Rahim, M. (1997). Managing organizational learning. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 5, 5-8.
44.
Rice, F. (1996, May 13). Denny’s changes its spots. Fortune, 133-142.
45.
Schein, E. (1996). Three cultures of management: The key to organizational learning. Sloan Management Review, 38, 9-20.
46.
Schlenker, B. (1980). Impression management: The self-concept, social identity, and interpersonal relations. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Publishing.
47.
Scott, W. R. (1987). The adolescence of institutional theory. Administrative Science Quarterly, 32, 493-511.
48.
Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline. New York: Doubleday.
49.
Simpson, C. (1998, May 21). Suit accuses Gingiss of race bias. Chicago Sun-Times, p. 22.
50.
Skinner, B. F. (1971). Contingencies of reinforcement. East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
51.
Souza, D. (1997). The diversity trap. Forbes, 159(2), 83.
52.
Starkey, K. (Ed.). (1996). How organizations learn. London: International Thomson Business Press.
53.
Thomas, D., & Ely, R. (1996). Making differences matter: A new paradigm for managing diversity. Harvard Business Review, 74, 79-81.
54.
Unger, H. (1999, April 24). Discrimination lawsuit: Coca-Cola accused of company wide patterns. Atlanta Journal-Constitution, p. H1.
55.
Walsh, J., & Ungson, J. (1991). Organizational memory. Academy of Management Review, 16, 57-93.
