Background: Tall ship sail training, a form of outdoor adventure education, has historically been used with youth to build competency in seamanship and social and emotional skills. However, there is a void in the literature documenting precise program models connected to specific goals. Purpose: This paper presents a case study of the Shenandoah Model of sail training. It details its Positive Youth Development (PYD) framework and mean changes in PYD assets reported by participants. Methodology/Approach: Participants were surveyed using a one-group retrospective pretest-posttest pre-experimental design to assess the impact of participation. Findings/Conclusions: The participants reported significant mean increases across all PYD assets (Caring, Connection, Contribution, Competence, Character, Confidence, and Happiness), including moderate effect sizes for all measures except Happiness. In addition, over 70% of the participants would recommend the program and/or do it again, suggesting program satisfaction. Implications: Connecting different PYD assets to various program activities allows future program designs to intentionally develop sail training voyages to build competencies. Future follow-up research is needed, including qualitative methods to capture the impact of these programs from the participants’ viewpoint.
Abi-JaoudeE.NaylorK. T.PignatielloA. (2020). Smartphones, social media use and youth mental health. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 192(6), E136–E141. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.190434
2.
AlvarezT. G.StaufferG.LungD. M.SackstederK.BealeB.TuckerA. R. (2021). Adventure group psychotherapy: An experiential approach to treatment. Routledge.
3.
AnnikoM. K.BoersmaK.TillforsM. (2019). Sources of stress and worry in the development of stress-related mental health problems: A longitudinal investigation from early- to mid-adolescence. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 32(2), 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2018.1549657
4.
ArnoldM. E.NottB. D.MeinholdJ. L. (2012). The Positive Youth Development Inventory Full Version Retrospective Pretest Format. Oregon State University.
5.
BallardH. L.DixonC. G. H.HarrisE. M. (2017). Youth-focused citizen science: Examining the role of environmental science learning and agency for conservation. Biological Conservation, 208(3), 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.05.024
6.
CapursoM.BorsciS. (2013). Effects of a tall ship training experience on adolescents’ self concept. International Journal of Educational Research, 58, 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2013.01.004
CroweS.CresswallK.RobertsonA.HubyG.AveryA.SheikhA. (2011) The case study approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11(100), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-100
9.
EwertA. W.SibthorpJ. (2014). Outdoor adventure education: Foundations, theory, and research. Human Kinetics.
10.
GilbertsonK.EwertA.SiklanderP.BatesT. (2022). Outdoor education: Methods and strategies (2nd Ed.). Human Kinetics.
11.
GrantA. M.BergJ. M.CableD. M. (2014). Job titles as identity badges: How self reflective titles can reduce emotional exhaustion. Academy of Management Journal, 57(4), 1201–1225. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2012.0338
GrocottA.HunterJ. A. (2009). Increases in global and domain specific self-esteem following a 10-day developmental voyage. Social Psychology of Education, 12(4), 443–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-008-9088-5
14.
GuerraN. G.BradshawC. P. (2008). Linking the prevention of problem behaviors and positive youth development: Core competencies for positive youth development and risk prevention. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2008(122), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.225
15.
HayhurstJ.HunterJ. A.KafkaS.BoyesM. (2013). Enhancing resilience in youth through a 10-day developmental voyage. Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning, 15(1), 40–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2013.843143
16.
HenstockM.BarkerK.KnijnikJ. (2013). 2, 6, heave! sail training's influence on the development of self-concept and social networks and their impact on engagement with learning and education. A pilot study. Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 17(1), 32–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03400954
17.
HunterJ. A.HayhurstJ.KafkaS.BoyesM.RuffmanT.O'BrienK.StringerM. (2013). Elevated self-esteem 12 months following a 10-day developmental voyage. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(9), 1956–1961. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12132
18.
HunterJ. A.KafkaS.HayhurstJ.ClarkH.DickersonD.HaroldG.BoyesM.O'BrienK.StringerM. (2010). Increased self-efficacy following a ten-day developmental voyage. Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 22(1), 63–65. https://doi.org/10.2989/17280583.2010.496943
19.
JostG. M.HangS.ShaikhU.HostinarC. E. (2023). Understanding adolescent stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Opinion in Psychology, 53, 101646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101646
20.
KafkaS.HunterJ. A.HayhurstJ.BoyesM.ThomsonR. L.ClarkeH.GrocottA. M.StringerM.O'BrienK. S. (2012). A 10-day developmental voyage: Converging evidence from three studies showing that self-esteem may be elevated and maintained without negative outcomes. Social Psychology of Education, 15(4), 571–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-012-9177-3
21.
KissO.AlzuetaE.YukselD.PohlK. M.de ZambottiM.Műller-OehringE. M.ProutyD.DurleyI.PelhamW. E.IIIMcCabeC. J.GonzalezM. R.BrownS. A.WadeN. E.MarshallA. T.SowellE. R.BreslinF. J.LisdahlK. M.DickA. S.ShethC. S. (2022). The pandemic’s toll on young adolescents: Prevention and intervention targets to preserve their mental health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 70(3), 387–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.11.023
22.
KroufekR.CinceraJ.KolenatyM.ZalesakJ.JohnsonB. (2023). “I had a spider in my mouth”: What makes students happy in outdoor environmental education programs. Evaluation and Program Planning, 99(C), 102326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2023.102326
23.
LarsonR. (2006). Positive youth development, willful adolescents, and mentoring. Journal of Community Psychology, 34(6), 677–689. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20123
LernerR. M.LernerJ. V.AlmerigiJ. B.TheokasC.PhelpsE.GestsdottirS.NaudeauS.JelicicH.AlbertsA.MaL.SmithL. M.BobekD. L.Richman-RaphaelD.SimpsonI.ChristiansenE. D.von EyeA. (2005). Positive youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community contributions of fifth-grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H study of positive youth development. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 17–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316042724
26.
LoadesM. E.ChatburnE.Higson-SweeneyN.ReynoldsS.ShafranR.BrigdenA.LinneyC.McManusM. N.BorwickC.CrawleyE. (2020). Rapid systematic review: The impact of social isolation and loneliness on the mental health of children and adolescents in the context of COVID-19. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(11), 1218–1239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.05.009
27.
MaC. M. S.ShekD. T. (2019). Objective outcome evaluation of a positive youth development program: The project PATHS in Hong Kong. Research on Social Work Practice, 29(1), 49–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731517711246
28.
MagsonN. R.FreemanJ. Y. A.RapeeR. M.RichardsonC. E.OarE. L.FardoulyJ. (2020). Wish and protective factors for prospective changes in adolescent mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(1), 44–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01332-9
McCullochK.McLaughlinP.AllisonP.EdwardsV.TettL. (2010). Sail training as education: More than mere adventure. Oxford Review of Education, 36(6), 661–676. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2010.495466
31.
MegretC. (2023). No connectivity, better connections: Teenagers’ experiences of a phone-free summer camp in the United States. . Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 24(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2023.2211180
32.
MorganA.LangfordS.VassalloT. (2021). Fulfilling careers in the sail training sector: Charting a course for professionals and volunteers - it’s not about the boat!. International Journal of the Sociology of Leisure, 5, 33–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41978-021-00085-4
NortonC. L.TuckerA. R.RupeB.RileyM. (2023). Positive youth development and adventure therapy with underserved youth: An evaluation of the Chicago voyagers program. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership, 15(4), 48–65. https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2023-11703
35.
OrsenC. N.McGovernG.LarsonR. W. (2020). How challenges and peers contribute to social-emotional learning in outdoor adventure education programs. Journal of Adolescence, 81(1), 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.02.014
36.
OswaldT. K.RumboldA. R.KedziorS. G.MooreV. M. (2020). Psychological impacts of screen time” and “green time” for children and adolescents: A systematic scoping review. PloS ONE, 15(9), e0237725. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237725
PascoeM. C.HetrickS. E.ParkerA. G. (2020). The impact of stress on students in secondary school and higher education. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1596823
39.
PriestS.GassM. (2017). Effective leadership in adventure programming (3rd ed.). Human Kinetics.
40.
RichardsonJ. (2011). Eta squared and partial eta squared as measures of effect size in educational research. Educational Research Review, 6(2), 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2010.12.001
41.
RomelczykE.BeckerA. (2016). Missing the tide? Workplace cultural differences as a barrier to seafarer mobility in the US workboat and sail training sectors. Maritime Policy & Management, 43(7), 843–859. https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2016.1185182
42.
RussellK. C.GillisH. L. L.KivlighanD. M. (2017). Process factors explaining psycho-social outcomes in adventure therapy. Psychotherapy, 54(3), 273–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000131
ScarfD.KafkaS.HayhurstJ.JangK.BoyesM.ThomsonR.HunterJ. A. (2017). Satisfying psychological needs on the high seas: Explaining increases self-esteem following an adventure education program. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 18(2), 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2017.1385496
45.
ScarfD.MoradiS.McGawK.HewittJ.HayhurstJ. G.BoyesM.RuffmanT.HunterJ. A. (2016). Somewhere I belong: Long-term increases in adolescents’ resilience are predicted by perceived belonging to the in-group. British Journal of Social Psychology, 55(3), 588–599. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12151
46.
SchijfM.AllisonP.Von WalkdK. (2017). Sail training: A systematic review. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership, 9(2), 167–180. https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2017-V9-I2-8230
ShekD. T.DouD.ZhuX.ChaiW. (2019). Positive youth development: Current perspectives. Adolescent Health, Medicine, and Therapeutics, 2019(10), 131–141. https://doi.org/10.2147/AHMT.S179946
49.
ShimR.SzilagyiM.PerrinJ. M. (2022). Epidemic rates of child and adolescent mental health disorders require an urgent response. Pediatrics, 149(5), e2022056611. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2022-056611
50.
SiengM.CloutierS.IrimataK. (2018). Positive youth development sustainability scale (PYDSS): The development of an assessment tool. Journal of Social Change, 10(1), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.5590/JOSC.2018.10.1.07
TaoX.FisherC. B. (2022). Exposure to social media, racial discrimination and mental health among adolescents of color. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51(1), 30–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01514-z
53.
TuckerA. R.DeMilleS.NewmanT.Polachi AtanasovaC.BryanP.KeefeM.SmithermanL. (2020). How adolescents view the role of the wilderness in wilderness therapy: “I am in the middle of nowhere and that is okay”. Children and Youth Services Review, 153(1), 107045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.107045
54.
TuckerA. R.NortonC. L.ItinC.HobsonJ.AlvarezM. A. (2016). Adventure therapy: Nondeliberative group work in action. Social Work with Groups, 39(2–3), 194–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/01609513.2015.1048416
55.
TuckerA. R.RheingoldA. (2010). Enhancing fidelity in adventure education and adventure therapy. Journal of Experiential Education, 33(3), 258–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590113300305
WaidJ.UhrichM. (2019). A scoping review of the theory and practice of positive youth development. The British Journal of Social Work, 50(1), 5–24. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcy130
58.
YildizK. (2022). Experiential learning from the perspective of outdoor education leaders. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education, 30, 100343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2021.100343
