This state of knowledge article provides an overview of Adventure Therapy (AT) as it is practiced with adolescents in North America, presenting (a) current findings in AT research with adolescents, (b) critical issues in AT, (c) the need for training and professional development in AT, and (d) professionalization in AT. Implications of current findings in AT research for practitioners, researchers, and consumers of AT services are also discussed.
Association for Experiential Education (AEE). (2013). What is experiential education?Retrieved on 1/8/13 from: http://www.aee.org/about/whatIsEE
2.
BeckerS. P. (2010). Wilderness therapy: Ethical considerations for mental health professionals. Child & Youth Care Forum, 39, 47-61.
3.
BermanD.Davis-BermanJ. (2013). The role of therapeutic adventure in meeting the mental health needs of children and adolescents: Finding a niche in the health care systems of the United States and the United Kingdom. Journal of Experiential Education, 36, 51-64. doi:10.1177/1053825913481581
4.
BettmannJ. E. (2012). Therapeutic outcomes of wilderness therapy for adolescent and young adult populations. Paper presented at the May, 2012 American Psychological Association Convention. Orlando, FL. doi:10.1037/e630622012-001
5.
BettmannJ. E.RussellK. C.ParryK. J. (2013). How substance abuse recovery skills, readiness to change and symptom reduction impact change processes in wilderness therapy participants. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 1039-1050. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9665-2
6.
BowenD. J.NeillJ. T. (2013). A meta-analysis of adventure therapy outcomes and moderators. The Open Psychology Journal, 6, 28-53. doi:10.2174/1874350120130802001
7.
BowlerD. E.Buyung-AliL. M.KnightT. M.PullinA. S. (2010). A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments. BMC Public Health, 10, 456-466.
8.
BurlingameG. M.WellsM. G.CoxJ. C.LambertM. J.LatkowskiM.JusticeD. (2005). Administration and scoring manual for the Y-OQTM. Wharton, NJ: American Professional Credentialing Service.
9.
CasonD.GillisH. L. (1994). A meta-analysis of outdoor adventure programming with adolescents. Journal of Experiential Education, 17, 40-47.
10.
CaulkinsM. C.WhiteD. D.RussellK. D. (2006). The role of physical exercise in wilderness therapy for troubled adolescent women. Journal of Experiential Education, 29, 18-37.
GassM.A. (1995). Adventure family therapy: An innovative approach answering the question of lasting change with adjudicated youth. Monograph on Youth in the 1990s, 4, 103-117.
14.
GassM.A.GillisH.L.RussellK.C. (2012). Adventure therapy: Theory, research, and practice. Routledge.
15.
GillisH. L. (2012, November). What is significant?Keynote address at the 2012 AEE Symposium on Experiential Education Research (SEER), Madison, WI.
16.
GillisH. L.GassM. (2010). Treating juveniles in a sex offender program using adventure-based programming: A matched group design. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 19, 20-34. doi:10.1080/10538710903485583
17.
GillisH. L.GassM. A.RussellK. C. (2008). The effectiveness of project adventure’s behavior management programs for male offenders in residential treatment. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 25, 227-247.
18.
GillisH. L.SpeelmanE. (2008). Are challenge (ropes) courses an effective tool? A meta-analysis. Journal of Experiential Education, 31, 111-135.
19.
HayesM.TuckerA. R.GassM. (2013). The use of adventure-based programming at therapeutic residential centers and wilderness programs for youth. Manuscript submitted for publication.
20.
JacobsonN. S.TruaxP. (1991). Clinical significance: A statistical approach to defining meaningful change in psychotherapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 12-19.
21.
JavorskiS.GassM. A. (2013). 10-year incident monitoring trends in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare: Lessons learned and future directions. Journal of Therapeutic Schools & Programs, 6, 112-128.
22.
JelalianE.MehlenbeckR.Lloyd-RichardsonE. E.BirmaherV.WingR. R. (2006). “AT” combined with cognitive-behavioral treatment for overweight adolescents. International Journal of Obesity, 30, 31-39. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803069
23.
JelalianE.SatoA.HartC. N. (2011). The effect of group-based weight-control intervention on adolescent psychosocial outcomes: Perceived peer rejection, social anxiety, and self-concept. Children’s Health Care, 40(3), 197-211. doi:10.1080/02739615.2011.590391
KolbD. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
26.
KutzJ. D.O’ConnellA. (2007, October10). Concerns regarding abuse and death in certain programs for troubled youth (# GAO-08-146T; Report and Testimony to the Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Accounting Office.
27.
LewisS. F. (2012). Examining changes in substance use and conduct problems among treatment-seeking adolescents. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 18, 33-38. doi:10.1111/j.1475-3588.2012.00657.x
28.
Magle-HaberekN. A.TuckerA. R.GassM. A. (2012). Effects of program differences with wilderness therapy and Residential Treatment Center (RTC) programs. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 29, 202-218. doi:10.1080/0886571X.2012.697433
29.
MarchandG.RussellK. C. (2013). Examining the role of expectations and perceived job demand stressors for field instructors in outdoor behavioral healthcare. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 30, 55-71. doi:10.1080/0886571X.2013.751809
NortonC. L. (2010). Exploring the process of a therapeutic wilderness experience: Key components in the treatment of adolescent depression and psychosocial development. Journal of Therapeutic Schools & Programs, 4, 24-46.
33.
NortonC. L.TuckerA. R. (2010). New heights: Adventure-based group work in social work education & practice. Groupwork, 20(2), 24-44.
34.
OglesB. M.MelendezG.DavisD. C.LunnenK. M. (1999). The Ohio youth problems, functioning, and satisfaction scales (short form): User manual. Athens: Ohio University. Retrieved from https://sites.google.com/site/ohioscales/the-manuals
ParchemA. (1976). Notes on outdoor education evaluation: A paper presented at the National Conference on Outdoor Education (AEE). Estes Park, CO: Association for Experiential Education.
38.
PriestS.GassM. A. (2005). Effective leadership in adventure programming. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
39.
RussellK. C. (2003). An assessment of outcomes in outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment. Child & Youth Care Forum, 32, 355-381.
40.
RussellK. C. (2006a, December). Depressive symptom and substance use frequency outcome in outdoor behavioral healthcare (Technical Report 1). Minneapolis: Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare Research Cooperative, College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota.
41.
RussellK. C. (2006b). Evaluating the effects of the Wendigo Lake expedition program on young offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4, 185-203.
42.
RussellK. C. (2008). Adolescent substance-use treatment: Service delivery, research on effectiveness, and emerging treatment alternatives. Journal of Groups in Addiction & Recovery, 2(2-4), 68-96.
43.
RussellK. C. (2012). The therapeutic use of nature. In ClaytonS. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of environmental and conservation psychology (pp. 428-445). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
44.
RussellK. C.GillisH. L. (2010). Experiential therapy in the mental health treatment of adolescents. Journal of Therapeutic Schools & Programs, 4, 47-79.
45.
RussellK. C.GillisH. L.LewisT. G. (2008). A five-year follow-up of a survey of North American outdoor behavioral healthcare programs. Journal of Experiential Education, 31, 55-77.
46.
RussellK. C.Phillips-MillerD. (2002). Perspectives on the wilderness therapy process and its relation to outcome. Child & Youth Care Forum, 31, 415-437.
47.
SackstederK. (2012). Development of best practices for AT. In PryorA.CarpenterC.NortonC. L.KirchnerJ. (Eds.), Emerging insights: Proceedings of the 5th international AT conference 2009 (pp. 92-103). Prague, CZ: European Science and Art Publishing.
ScottD. A.DuersonL. M. (2010). Continuing the discussion: A commentary on “Wilderness therapy: Ethical considerations for mental health professionals.”Child & Youth Care Forum, 39, 63-68.
50.
SomervellJ.LambieI. (2009). Wilderness therapy within an adolescent sexual offender treatment programme: A qualitative study. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 15, 161-177.
51.
TaylorD. M.SegalD.HarperN. J. (2010). The ecology of AT: An integral systems approach to therapeutic change. Ecopsychology, 2, 77-83.
52.
TuckerA. R.JavorskiS.TracyJ.BealeB. (2013). The use of AT in community-based mental health: Decreases in problem severity among youth clients. Child & Youth Care Forum, 42, 155-179. doi:10.1007/s10566-012-9190-x
53.
TuckerA. R.NortonC. L. (2013). The use of AT techniques by clinical social workers: Implications for practice and training. Clinical Social Work Journal, 41, 333-343. doi:10.1007/s10615-012-0411-4
54.
TuckerA. R.RheingoldA. (2010). Enhancing fidelity in adventure education and AT. Journal of Experiential Education, 33, 258-273.
55.
TuckerA. R.ZelovR.YoungM. (2011). Four years along: Emerging traits of programs in the NATSAP Practice Research Network (PRN). Journal of Therapeutic Schools & Programs, 5, 10-28.
WalshM. A.RussellK. C. (2010). An exploratory study of a wilderness adventure program for young offenders. Ecopsychology, 2, 221-229.
58.
WarrenK.SakofsM.HuntJ. (Eds.). (1995). The theory of experiential education. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
59.
YoungM. C.GassM. (2010). Preliminary data from the NATSAP research and evaluation network: Client characteristics at admission. Journal of Therapeutic Schools & Programs, 4, 85-111.
60.
ZelovR.TuckerA. R.JavorksiS. (2013). A new phase for the NATSAP PRN: Post discharge reporting and transition to the network wide utilization of the Y-OQ 2.0. Journal of Therapeutic Schools & Programs, 6(1), 7-19.