Increasing concern for the developmental outcome of infants born prematurely has motivated investigation of their cognitive cnd socioemotional development. Some scientists have viewed preterm infants as a homogeneous sample whose major deficit lies in their immaturity and have Included both small-for-dates and premature, appropriate-for-dates Infants as one sample, even though they are biologically distinct and have different developmental outcomes. In addition, recent evidence has highlighted the number of medical complications endured by prematures and their potential effect on development. Finally, the effect of early environmental experience on the premature needs careful examination. Prematures are capable of processing and profiting from auditory and visual information much earlier than previously thought. This article reviews these three issues-maturity, illness, and potential effect of early experience—as factors important in any research on preterm development.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Ahmann, P.A., Lazzara, A., & Dykes, F.Intraventricular hemorrhage in the high risk preterm Infant: Incidence and outcome. Annals of Neurology, 1980, 7, 118.
2.
Ahmann, P.A., Lazzara, A., Dykes, F., Schwartz, J.F., & Brann, A.W. IVH: Incidence & outcome (abstract). Paper presented at Seventh National Meeting of the Child Neurology Society, Colorado, 1978, 2.
3.
Als, H., Lester, B.M., and Brazelton, T.B.Dynamics of the behavioral organization of the premature infant. In T. Field, A. Sostek, S. Goldberg, & H. H. Shuman (Eds.), Infants born at risk: behavior and development . New York: Spectrum Press, 1979.
4.
Ambrus, C.M., Weintraub, D.M., Niswander, K.R., Fisch, L., Fleishman, J., Bross, I.D., & Ambrus, J.L.Evaluation of survivors of respiratory distress syndrome at 4 years of age . American Journal of Diseases of Children, 1970, 120, 296-302.
5.
Berg, W.K., & Berg, K.M.Psychophysiological development in infancy: State, sensory function & attention. In J. Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook of infant development. YewYork: Wiley, 1979.
6.
Blakemore, C., & Cooper, G.Development of the brain depends on the visual environment. Nature, 1970, 228, 477-478.
7.
Blenow, G., Svenningsen, N.W., & Almquist, B.Noise levels in infant incubators (adverse effects?). Pediatrics , January 1974, 53(1), 29-32.
8.
Brachfeld, S., Goldberg, S., & Sloman, J.Parent-infant interaction in free play at 8 & 12 months: Effects of prematurity and immaturity. Infant Behavior and Development, 1980, 3, 289-305.
9.
Caputo, D., & Mandell, W.Consequences of low birthweight. Developmental Psychology . 1970, 3, 363-383.
10.
Commey, J.O., & Fitzhardinge, P.M.Handicaps in the preterm small for gestational age infant. Journal of Pediatrics, 1979, 94, 779.
11.
Cornell, E.H., & Gottfried, A.W.Intervention with premature human infants. Child Development, 1976, 47, 32.
12.
Davies, P.A., & Stewart, A.X.Low birthweight infants: Neurological sequalae. British Medical Journal, 1975, 31, 85-91.
13.
Deonna, T., Payot, M., Probst, A., & Prod'hom, L.Neonatal intracranial hemorrhage in premature infants. Pediatrics , 1975, 56, 1056-1064.
14.
Divitto, B., & Goldberg, S.The development of early parent-infant interaction as a function of newborn medical status. In T. Field, A. Sostek, S. Goldberg, & H. Shuman (Eds.), Infants born at risk: Behavior and development. New York: Spectrum Press, 1979.
15.
Dreyfus-Brisac, C.Sleep ontogenesis in early human prematurity from 24-27 weeks of conceptional age. Developmental Psychobiology, 1968, 1, 162.
16.
Dreyfus-Brisac, C.Ontogenesis of sleep in human prematures after 32 weeks of conceptional age . Developmental Psychobiology, 1970, 3, 91.
17.
Dreyfus-Brisac, C.Organization of sleep in prematures: Implications for caretaking. In M. Lewis & L. Rosenblum (Eds.), The effect of the infant on its caregiver . New York: Wiley, 1974.
18.
Fantz, R.L., and Fagan, J.F.Visual attention to size and number of pattern details by term and preterm infants during the first six months. Child Development, 1975, 46, 3-18.
19.
Fantz, R., Fagan, J., & Miranda, S.Early visual selectivity as a function of pattern variables, previous exposure, age from birth & conception & expected cognitive deficit. In L. Cohen & P. Salapatek (Eds.), Infant perception: From sensation to cognition. New York: Academic Press , 1975.
20.
Field, T. M., Sostek, A. M., Goldberg, S., & Shuman, H. H. (Eds.). Infants born at risk: Behavior and development. New York: Spectrum Press, 1979.
21.
Field, T.M., Dempsey, S.R., & Shuman, H.H.Developmental follow-up of preterm and postterm infants. In S. L. Friedman & M. Sigman (Eds.), Preterm birth & psychological development. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
22.
Fitzhardinge, P.M. and Ramsey, M.The improving outlook for the small prematurely born infant. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1973, 15, 447-459.
23.
Francis-Williams, J., & Davies, P.A.Very low birthweight and later intelligence. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 1974, 16, 709.
24.
Friedman, S.L., & Jacobs, B.S.Preterms of low medical risk: Spontaneous behaviors and soothability at expected date of birth. In press.
25.
Gardner, J., and Karmel, B.Z.Preferential looking at stimuli varying in temporal frequency by preterm infants . Paper presented at the International Conference on Infancy Studies, New Haven, 1980.
26.
Gesell, A., & Amatruda, C.The Embryology of behavior. New York: Harper & Row, 1945.
27.
Gessell, A., & Amatruda, C.Developmental diagnosis: Normal & abnormal child development. New York: Harper & Row, 1947 .
28.
Gottfried, A.W., Sherman-Brown, S., Wallace-Lands, P., Coen, C., Allen, H., & King, J.Physical & social ecology of newborn special care unit. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies , New Haven, April 1980.
29.
Graziani, L., Katz, L., Cracco, R., Cracco, J., & Weitzman, E.The maturation and inter-relationship of EEG patterns and auditory evoked responses in premature infants. Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 1974, 36, 367.
30.
Herzog, J.M.Disturbances in parenting high-risk infants: Clinical impressions and hypotheses . In T. M. Field, A. M. Sostek, S. Goldberg , & H. H. Shuman (Eds.), Infants born at risk: Behavior and development. New York : Spectrum-Press, 1979.
31.
Hrebk, A.Karlberg, P., and Olsson, T.Development of visual and somatosensory evoked responses in preterm newborn infants. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology , 1973, 34, 225-232.
32.
Hubel, D., & Wiesel, T.Receptive fields, binocular interaction, & functional architecture in the cat's visual cortex. Journal of Physiology, 1962, 160, 106-154.
33.
Hunt, J.V., & Rhodes, L.Mental development of preterm infants during the first year. Child Development, 1977, 48, 204-210.
34.
Klaus, M.H., & Fanaroff, A.A.Care of the high risk neonate. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1973.
35.
Koops, B.L.Neurological sequelae in infants with intrauterine growth retardation. Journal of Reproductive Medicine, In press.
36.
Koops, B.L., & Harmon, R.J.Studies on long term outcome in newborns with birthweights under 1,500 grams . In B. Camp (Ed.), Advances in behavioral pediatrics, Vol. 1. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1980.
37.
Kopp, C.B., Sigman, M., Parmalee, A.H., & Jeffrey, W.E.Neurological organization & visual fixation in infants at 40 weeks conceptional age. Developmental Psychobiology, 1975, 8, 165-170.
38.
Korner, A.F., Kraemer, H.C., & Haffner, E.Effects of waterbed flotation on premature infants: A pilot study. Pediatrics, 1975, 56, 361.
39.
Kumar, S.P., Andag, E.K., Sachs, L.M., Ting, R.Y., & Papadopoulous, N.D.Follow-up studies of very low birthweight infants (1,250 grams or less) born and treated within a perinatal center. Pediatrics, 1980, 66, 438.
40.
Kurtzberg, D., Vaughn, H.G., Daum, C. Grellong, B.A., Albin, S., & Rotkin, L.Neurobehavioral performance of low birthweight infants at 40 weeks conceptional age: Comparison with normal full term infants. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1970, 21, 590-607.
41.
Lawson, K., Daum, C., & Turkewitz, G.Environmental characteristics of a neonatal intensive care unit. Child Development, 1977, 48, 1633-1639.
42.
Leib, S.A., Benfield, G., & Guidubaldi, J.Effects of early intervention and stimulation on the preterm infant. Pediatrics, 1980, 66, 83-90.
43.
Lenard, H.G., Schulte, F.J., Eichorn, W., Meyer, S., & Busse, C.Die Entwicklung sensorischer funktionen bei fruhgebonenen in den ersten lebens wachen. Mschr. Kinderheilkunde, 1977, 125, 383-385.
44.
Lewis, M.State as an infant-environment interaction: An analysis of mother-infant interaction as a function of sex. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1972, 18, 95-121.
45.
Lewis, M., & Fox, N.Predicting cognitive development from assessments in infancy. In B. Camp (Ed.), Advances in behavioral pediatrics, Vol. 1. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1980, 53-67.
46.
Littman, B.The relationship of medical events to infant development. In T. M. Field, A. M. Sostek, S. Goldberg, & H. H. Shuman (Eds.), Infants born at risk: Behavior and development. New York: Spectrum Press, 1979.
47.
Littman, B. & Parmalee, A.H.Medical correlates of infant development. Pediatrics, 1978, 61, 470-474.
48.
Lubchenco, L., Searls, D., & Brazie, J.Neonatal mortality rate: Relationship to birthweight & gestational age . Journal of Pediatrics, 1972, 81, 814-822.
49.
Marriage, K.J., & Davies, P.A.Neurological sequelae in children surviving mechanical ventilation in the neonatal period. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 1977, 52, 176-182.
50.
Metcalf, D.The effects of extrauterine experience on the ontogenesis of EEG sleep spindles . Psychosomatic Medicine, 1969, 31, 393-399.
51.
Miranda, S.B., & Hack, M.The predictive value of neonatal visual-perceptual behaviors. In T. Martin Field, A. Miller Sostek, S. Goldberg, & H. H. Shuman (Eds.), Infants born at risk: Behavior and Development. New York: Spectrum Press, 1979.
52.
Molfese, D.L., & Molfese, V.J.Cortical responses of preterm infants to phonetic and nonphonetic speech stimuli . Developmental Psychology, 1980, 16, 574-581.
53.
Monod, N., & Garma, L.Auditory responsivity in the human premature. Biology of the Neonate, 1971,17, 292-316.
54.
Neal, M.V.Vestibular stimulation and developmental behavior of the small premature infant . Nursing Research Report, 1968, 3, 2.
55.
O'Connor, M.J.A comparison of preterm and full term infants on auditory discrimination at four months and on Bayley scales of infant development at eighteen months . Child Development, 1980, 51, 81-88.
56.
Pape, K.E., Buncic, R.J., & Ashby, S.The status at 2 years of low birthweight infants born in 1974 with birthweights of less than 1,001 grams. Journal of Pediatrics, 1978, 92, 253.
57.
Papile, L.A., Burstein, J., Burstein, R., & Koffler, H.Incidence and evolution of subependymal & intraventricular hemorrhage: A study of infants with birthweights less than 1,500 grams. Journal of Pediatrics, 1978, 92, 529.
58.
Parmalee, A.H.Neurophysiological & behavioral organization of premature infants in the first months of life. Biological Psychiatry, 1975, 10, 501-512.
59.
Parmalee, A.H., & Haber, A.Who is the risk infant? Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology , 1973, 16, 376-387.
60.
Parmalee, A.H., Schulte, F.J., Akiyama, Y., Wenner, W.H., Schultz, M.A., & Stern, E.Maturation of EEG activity during sleep in premature infants. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1968, 24, 319-329.
61.
Parmalee, A.H., & Schulte, F.Developmental testing of preterm and small-for-date infants. Pediatrics, 1970, 45, 21-28.
62.
Parmalee, A.H., Wenner, W.H., Akiyama, Y., Stern, E., & Fletcher, J.Electroencephalography and brain maturation. In A. Minkowski (Ed.), Symposium on regional development of the brain in early life. Philadelphia: Davis, 1967a.
63.
Parmalee, A.H., Wenner, W.H., Akiyama, Y., Schultz, M., & Stern, E.Sleep states in premature infants. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1967b, 9, 70.
64.
Powell, L.F.The effects of extra stimulation on the development of low birthweight infants and on maternal behavior. Child Development, 1974, 45, 106.
65.
Purpura, D.Normal & aberrant neuronal development in the cerebral cortex of human fetus and young infant. In N. A. Buchwald & M. A. B. Brazier (Eds.), Brain mechanisms in mental retardation. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
66.
Robertson, A.M., & Crichton, J.U.Neurological sequelae in children with neonatal respiratory distress. American Journal of Diseases of Childhood , 1969,117, 271-276.
Rose, S.Lags in the cognitive competence of prematurely born infants. In S. L. Friedman & M. Sigman (Eds.), Preterm birth and psychological development. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
69.
Rose, S.A., Schmidt, K., Reese, M.L., & Bridger, W.H.Affects of prematurity and early intervention on responsivity to tactual stimuli: A comparison of preterm and full-term infants. Child Development , in press.
70.
Sameroff, A., & Chandler, M.Reproductive risk and the continuum of caretaking casualty. In F. Horowitz, M. Hetherington , S. Scarr-Salapatek, & G. Siegel (Eds.), Review of child development research, Vol. 4. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975.
71.
Scarr-Salapatek, S., & Williams, M.The effects of early stimulation on low birthweight infants. Child Development, 1973, 44, 94.
72.
Schmidt, K., Rose, S.A., & Bridger, W.H.Effect of heartbeat sound on the cardiac and behavioral responsiveness to tactual stimulation in sleeping preterm infants. Developmental Psychology, 1980, 16, 175-184.
73.
Schulman-Galambos, C., & Galambos, R.Brain stem auditory-evoked responses in premature infants. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 1975, 18, 3, 456-465.
74.
Schulte, F.J., Stennert, E., Wulbrand, H., Eichorn, W., & Lenard, H.G.The ontogeny of sensory perception in preterm infants. European Journal of Pediatrics, 1977, 126, 211-224.
75.
Siegel, L.S.Infant tests as predictors of cognitive & language development at two years. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infancy Studies, New Haven, 1980.
76.
Siegel, L.S., Saigal, S., Rosenbaum, P., Morton, R.A., Young, A., Berenbaum, S., & Stoskopf, B.Predictors of development in preterm & full term infants: The model for detecting the at-risk child. In press.
77.
Sigman, M.Early development of preterm and full term infants: Exploratory behavior in eight month olds. Child Development, 1976, 47, 606-612.
78.
Sigman, M., Cohen, S.E., & Forsythe, A.B.The relation of early infant measures to later development. In S. Friedman & M. Sigman (Eds.), Preterm birth and psychological development. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
79.
Sigman, M., & Parmalee, A.H.Longitudinal evaluation of the preterm infant . In T. M. Field, A. M. Sostek, S. Goldberg , & A. H. Shuman (Eds.), Infants born at risk: Behavior and development. New York : Spectrum Press, 1979.
80.
Smith, A.C., Flick, G.L., Ferriss, G.S., & Sellmann, A.H.Prediction of developmental outcome at seven years from prenatal, perinatal, & postnatal events. Child Development, 1972, 43, 495-507.
81.
Sostek, A.M., Davitt, M.K.; Renzi, J., Born, W.S., & Kiely, S.C.Behavioral organization in preterm newborns. Paper presented at meetings of the American Psychological Association, Montreal, 1980.
82.
Stanley, F.J., & Alberman, E.D.Infants of very low birthweight. I: Perinatal factors affecting survival. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 1978, 20, 300-312.
83.
Stern, E., Parmalee, A.H., Akiyama, Y., Schultz, M.A., & Wenner, W.H.Sleep cycle characteristics in infants. Pediatrics, 1969, 43, 65-70.
84.
Stern, E., Parmalee, A., & Harris, M.Sleep state periodicity in prematures and young infants. Developmental Psychology, 1973, 6, 357-365.
85.
Stewart, A., Turcan, D., Rawlings, G., & Reynolds, E.Prognosis for infants weighing 1,000 grams or less at birth. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 1977, 52, 97-104.
86.
Stewart, A.L., & Reynolds, E.O.R.Improved prognosis for the very low birthweight infant. Pediatrics, 1974, 54, 724.
87.
Watanabe, K., Iwase, K., & Hara, K.Maturation of visual evoked responses in low birthweight infants. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1972, 14, 425-435.
88.
Watanabe, K., Iwase, K., & Hara, L.Visual evoked response during sleep & wakefulness in preterm infants. Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 1973 , 34, 571.
89.
Weitzman, E.D., & Graziani, L.J.Maturation and topography of the auditory evoked response of the prematurely born infant. Developmental Psychology , 1968, 1(2), 79-89.
90.
Werner, J.S., & Siqueland, E.R.Visual recognition memory in the preterm infant . Infant Behavior & Development, 1978, 1, 79-94.
91.
Zarin-Ackerman, J., Lewis, M., & Driscoll, J.Patterns of visual fixation in the sick, premature infant: A longitudinal study of the first two years of life. Version of this paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development meetings , Denver, April 1975.
