Deaf children with cochlear implants (CIs) need a supportive family environment to facilitate language development. The present study was designed to assess the effects of parent training (PT) on enhancing children’s communication development. The PT was based on the “It Takes Two to Talk” model, with specific adaptations for families of deaf children. Before and after the PT, 14 participating families and matched no-treatment controls were assessed using the Parent Stress Index and Cole’s interaction checklist. The children’s language was assessed with the MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Inventory and, after 3 years, with the Boston Naming, the Peabody, and the Test for Reception of Grammar–Version 2 (TROG-2). The families’ quality of interaction and the children’s language increased significantly more in the trained group than in controls and differences were still present after 3 years. The parents seemed to benefit from PT that focused on strategies to empower and promote communication skills in children with CIs.
AbidinR. R. (2003). PSI Parent Stress Index. Per l’identificazione precoce di sistemi relazionali genitore-bambino stressanti [For the early identification of stressful parent-child relationship systems]. Italian adaptation by GuarinoA.Di BlasioP.D’AlessioM.CamisascaE.SerantoniG.Giunti OS.
AragonM.Yoshinaga-ItanoC. (2012). Using language environment analysis to improve outcomes for children who are deaf or hard of hearing. Seminars in Speech and Language, 33, 340–353. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1326918
4.
BaldwinD. A. (1995). Understanding the link between joint attention and language. In MooreC.DunhamP. J. (Eds.), Joint attention: Its origins and role in development. Lawrence Erlbaum.
5.
BishopD. V. M. (2003). Test for Reception of Grammar (Version 2). Italian adaptation by SuranitiS.FerriR.NeriV.Giunti OS.
6.
BornsteinM. H.Tamis-LeMondaC. S.HahnC.HaynesO. M. (2008). Maternal responsiveness to young children at three ages: Longitudinal analysis of a multidimensional, modular, and specific parenting construct. Developmental Psychology, 44, 867–874. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.867
7.
CaselliM. C.CasadioP. (2007). Il primo Vocabolario del Bambino. Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, Istituto di Psicologia e Fondazione MacArthur [The first vocabulary of the child. National Research Council, Institute of Psychology and MacArthur Foundation]. Franco Angeli.
8.
CejasI.BarkerD. H.QuittnerA. L.NiparkoJ. K. (2014). Development of joint engagement in young deaf and hearing children: Effects of chronological age and language skills. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 57, 1831–1841. doi.org/10.1044/2014_JSLHR-L-13-0262
9.
ClarkM. (2006). A practical guide to quality interaction with children who have a hearing loss. Plural.
10.
ColeE.FlexerC. (2007). Children with hearing loss: Developing listening and talking. Plural.
11.
ColeE. B. (1992). Listening and talking. Alexander Graham Bell Association for Deaf.
12.
CooperC. E.McLanahanS. S.MeadowsS. O.Brooks-GunnJ. (2009). Family structure transitions and maternal parenting stress. Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 558–574. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00619.x
13.
CruzI.QuittnerA. L.MarkerC.DesJardinJ. L. & CDaCI Investigative Team. (2013). Identification of effective strategies to promote language in deaf children with cochlear implants. Child Development, 84, 543–559. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01863.x
14.
CutugnoF.ProsserS.TurriniM. (2000). Audiometria vocale [Speech Audiometry] (Vol. 4). GN Resound.
15.
DavidsonL. S.GeersA. E.NicholasJ. G. (2014). The effects of audibility and novel word learning ability on vocabulary level in children with cochlear implants. Cochlear Implants International, 15, 211–221. https://doi.org/10.1179/1754762813Y.0000000051
16.
DesJardinJ. L.AmbroseS. E.MartinezA. S.EisenbergL. S. (2009). Relationships between speech perception abilities and spoken language skills in young children with hearing loss. International Journal of Audiology, 48, 248–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/14992020802607423
17.
DesJardinJ. L.DollE. R.StikaC. J.EisenbergL. S.JohnsonK. J.GangulyD. H.ColsonB. G.HenningS. C. (2014). Parental support for language development during joint book reading for young children with hearing loss. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 35, 167–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525740113518062
18.
DesJardinJ. L.EisenbergL. S. (2007). Maternal contributions: Supporting language development in young children with cochlear implants. Ear & Hearing, 28, 456–469. https://doi.org/10.1097/AUD.0b013e31806dc1ab
19.
DunnL. M.DunnD. M. (1981). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–Revised. Italian adaptation by G. Stella, C. Pizzoli, & P. Tressoldi. Omega Edition.
20.
EisenbergL. S.ShannonR. V.MartinezA. S.WygonskiJ.BoothroydA. (2000). Speech recognition with reduced spectral cues as a function of age. Journal of Acoustic Society of America, 107, 2704–2710. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.428656
21.
EstabrooksW.MacIver-LuxK.RhoadesE. A. (2016). Auditory-verbal therapy for young children with hearing loss and their families, and the practitioners who guide them. Plural.
22.
FensonL.DaleP. S.ReznickJ. S.ThalD.BatesE.HartungJ. P.PethickS.ReillyJ. S. (1993). The MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Inventories: Users’ guide and technical manual. Singular.
GlanemannR.ReichmuthK.MatulatP.Zehnhoff-DinnesenA. A. (2013). Muenster Parental Programme empowers parents in communicating with their infant with hearing loss. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 77, 2023–2029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2013.10.001
27.
GuilfordA. M.NawojczykD. C. (1988). Standardization of the Boston Naming Test at the kindergarten and elementary school levels. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 19, 395–400. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.1904.395
28.
HadleyP. A.RispoliM.FitzgeraldC.BahnsenA. (2011). Predictors of morphosyntactic growth in typically developing toddlers: Contributions of parent input and child sex. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 54, 549–566.
29.
HarriganS.NikolopoulosT. P. (2002). Parent interaction course in order to enhance communication skills between parents and children following pediatric cochlear implantation. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 66, 161–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-5876(02)00243-4
30.
HartB.RisleyT. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Paul H. Brookes.
31.
HintermairM. (2006). Parental resources, parental stress, and socioemotional development of deaf and hard of hearing children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 11, 493–513. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enl005
32.
HuntleyM. (1996). Griffiths Mental Development Scales—Revised: Birth to 2 years. Hogrefe.
33.
KaplanE.GoodglassH.WeintraubS. (1983). Boston Naming Test. Italian adaptation by D. Riva, F. Nichelli, & M. Devoti (2000). Leah & Febiger.
34.
KindlonD.GarrisonW. (1984). The Boston Naming Test: Norm data and cue utilization in a sample of normal 6- and 7-year-old children. Brain and Language, 21, 255–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(84)90050-6
35.
Kurtzer-WhiteE.LutermanD. (2003). Families and children with hearing loss: Grief and coping. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 9, 232–235. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.10085
36.
LandryS. H.SmithK. E.SwankP. R. (2006). Responsive parenting: Establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills. Developmental Psychology, 42, 627–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.4.627
37.
LederbergA. R.GolbachT. (2002). Parenting stress and social support in hearing mothers of deaf and hearing children: A longitudinal study. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 7, 330–345. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/7.4.330
38.
LuizD.BarnardA.KnosenN.KotrasN.FaragherB.BurnsL. E. (2006). Griffiths Mental Development Scales, Extended Revised: 2 to 8 years. Hogrefe.
ManolsonA. (1992). It takes two to talk: A parents’ guide to helping children communicate. The Hanen Centre.
41.
MasurE. F.FlynnV.EichorstD. L. (2005). Maternal responsive and directive behaviours and utterances as predictors of children’s lexical development. Journal of Child Language, 32, 63–91. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0305000904006634
42.
McCarthyM.MuñozK.WhiteK. R. (2010). Teleintervention for infants and young children who are deaf or hard-of-hearing. Pediatrics, 126, S52–S58. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-0354J
43.
McGillionM. L.HerbertJ. S.PineJ. M.Keren PortnoyT.VihmanM. M.MatthewsD. E. (2013). Supporting early vocabulary development: What sort of responsiveness matters?IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development, 5, 240–248. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAMD.2013.2275949
44.
MerzE. C.ZuckerT. A.LandryS. H.WilliamsJ. M.AsselM.TaylorH. B.LoniganC. J.PhillipsB. M.Clancy-MenchettiJ.BarnesM. A.EisenbergN.de VilliersJ. & School Readiness Research Consortium. (2015). Parenting predictors of cognitive skills and emotion knowledge in socioeconomically disadvantaged preschoolers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 132, 14–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2014.11.010
45.
MoellerM. P. (2000). Early intervention and language development in children who are deaf and hard of hearing. Pediatrics, 106, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.106.3.e43
46.
MoellerM. P.CarrG.SeaverL.Stredler-BrownA.HolzingerD. (2013). Best practices in family-centered early intervention for children who are deaf or hard of hearing: An international consensus statement. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 18, 429–445. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/ent034
47.
NewmanR.ChatterjeeM. (2013). Toddlers’ recognition of noise-vocoded speech. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 133(1), 483–494. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4770241
48.
NittrouerS. (2010). Early development of children with hearing loss. Plural.
49.
NowakowskiM. E.TaskerS. L.SchmidtL. A. (2009). Establishment of joint attention in dyads involving hearing mothers of deaf and hearing children, and its relation to adaptive social behaviour. American Annals of Deaf, 154, 15–29.
50.
PepperJ.WeitzmanE. (2004). It Takes Two to Talk®: A practical guide for parents of children with language delays (2nd ed.). The Hanen Centre.
51.
QuittnerA. L.BarkerD. H.CruzI.SnellC.GrimleyM. E.BotteriM.CDaCI Investigative Team. (2010). Parenting stress among parents of deaf and hearing children: Associations with language delays and behavior problems. Parenting, Science and Practice, 10, 136–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190903212851
52.
QuittnerA. L.CruzI.BarkerD. H.TobeyE.EisenbergL. S.NiparkoJ. K. & Childhood Development after Cochlear Implantation Investigative Team. (2013). Effects of maternal sensitivity and cognitive and linguistic stimulation on cochlear implant users’ language development over four years. Journal of Pediatrics, 162, 343–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.08.003
53.
ReichmuthK.EmbacherA. J.MatulatP.Am Zehnhoff-DinnesenA.GlanemannR. (2013). Responsive parenting intervention after identification of hearing loss by Universal Newborn Hearing Screening: The concept of the Muenster Parental Programme. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 77, 2030–2039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2013.10.002
54.
RivaD.NichelliF.DevotiM. (2000). Developmental aspects of verbal fluency and confrontation naming in children. Brain and Language, 71, 267–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/brln.1999.2166
55.
RossiK. (2003). Learn to talk around the clock: A professional’s early intervention toolbox. Plural.
56.
SarantJ. Z.HoltC. M.DowellR. C.RickardsF. W.BlameyP. J. (2009). Spoken language development in oral preschool children with permanent childhood deafness. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 14, 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enn034
57.
SpencerP. E.Meadow-OrlansK. P. (1996). Play, language, and maternal responsiveness: A longitudinal study of deaf and hearing infants. Child Development, 67, 3176–3191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01908.x
58.
StellaG.PizzoliC.TressoldiP. (2000). Peabody. Test Psicolinguistico. Omega Edition.
59.
SuranitiS.FerriR.NeriV. (2009). TROG-2. Test for Reception of Grammar (Version 2). Giunti OS.
60.
SuskindD. L.GrafE.LeffelK. R.HernandezM. W.SuskindE.WebberR.TannenbaumS.NevinsM. E. (2016). Project ASPIRE: Spoken language intervention curriculum for parents of low-socioeconomic status and their deaf and hard-of-hearing children. Otology and Neurotology, 37, 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1097/MAO.0000000000000931
61.
SuskindD. L.SuskindB.Lewinter-SuskindL. (2015). Thirty million words: Building a child’s brain. Dutton.
62.
Tamis-LeMondaC. S.BornsteinM. H.BaumwellL. (2001). Maternal responsiveness and children’s achievement of language milestones. Child Development, 72, 748–767. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00313
63.
Tamis-LeMondaC. S.KuchirkoY.SongL. (2014). Why is infant language learning facilitated by parental responsiveness?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(2), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414522813
64.
TobeyE. A.ShinS.SundarrajanM.GeersA. E. (2011). Spoken word recognition in adolescent cochlear implant users during quiet and multispeaker babble conditions. Otology & Neurotology, 32, 413–418. https://doi.org/10.1097/MAO.0b013e31820d9613
65.
TomaselloM.FarrarM. J. (1986). Joint attention and early language. Child Development, 57, 1454–1463. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130423
66.
VanDamM.AmbroseS. E.MoellerM. P. (2012). Quantity of parental language in the home environments of hard-of-hearing 2-year-olds. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 17, 402–420. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/ens025
67.
van WieringenA.WoutersJ. (2015). What can we expect of normally-developing children implanted at a young age with respect to their auditory, linguistic and cognitive skills?Hearing Research, 322, 171–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2014.09.002
68.
WalkerD.GreenwoodC.HartB.CartaJ. (1994). Prediction of school outcomes based on early language production and socioeconomic factors. Child Development, 65(2), 606–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00771.x
69.
WhitmalN. A.PoissantS. F. (2009). Effects of source-to-listener distance and masking on perception of cochlear implant processed speech in reverberant rooms. Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 126, 2556–2569. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3216912
70.
WolfM.ObregonM. (1992). Early naming deficits, developmental dyslexia and a specific deficit hypothesis. Brain and Language, 42, 219–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(92)90099-Z
71.
YangH. M.HsiehY. J.WuJ. L. (2012). Speech recognition performance under noisy conditions of children with hearing loss. Clinical and Experimental Otorhinolaryngology, 5, S73–S75. https://doi.org/10.3342/ceo.2012.5.S1.S73
72.
Zaidman-ZaitA. (2008). Everyday problems and stress faced by parents of children with cochlear implants. Rehabilitation Psychology, 53, 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1037/0090-5550.53.2.139
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
