When behavioral and academic interventions prove ineffective in controlling the predominant symptoms of ADD; teachers, family members, affected students, and clinicians often turn to pharmacological solutions. Whereas studies clearly support the efficacy of psychostimulants such as methylphenidate (Ritalin) in significantly improving focus and impulse control, they underscore the importance of psychosocial and behavioral interventions in the reduction of hyperactivity. Furthermore, researchers recommend a thorough screening process before considering the use of such medication, which includes a comprehensive medical examination. Finally, the literature endorses the American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines on the use of pharmacology in the treatment of children with ADD and urges further research on the effects of the long-term use of psychostimulants such as methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine (Dexadrine).
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .
3.
Barkley, R.A., & Murphy, K.R. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A clinical workbook. New York: Guilford.
4.
Bender, W.N. (1997). Understanding ADHD: A practical guide for teachers and parents. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
5.
Brown, M.B. (2000). Diagnosis and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Counseling and Development, 78(2), 195—203.
6.
CHADD Fact Sheet No. 3. (2000). Medical management of children and adults with AD/HD. Retrieved April 24, 2002, from http://63.102.85.98/fs/fs3.htm
7.
Chatfield, J. (2002). AAP guideline on treatment of children with ADHD . American Family Physician, 65, 726—728.
8.
Conners, C.K. (1998). Conners' rating scales—Revised. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems .
9.
Dowdy, C.A., Patton, J.R., Smith, T.E.C., & Polloway, E.A. (1998). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in the classroom: A practical guide for teachers. Austin: PRO-ED.
10.
DuPaul, G.J., Power, T.J., Anastopoulos, A.D., & Reid, R. (1999). The ADHD Rating Scale—IV: Checklists, norms, and clinical interpretation. New York: Guilford.
Fischer, M., & Newby, R.F. (1998). Use of the restricted academic task in ADHD dose-response relationships. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 608—612.
13.
Greenhill, L.L., Halperin, J.M., & Abikoff, H. (1999). Stimulant medications. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 503—512.
14.
Hale, J.B., Hoeppner, J.B., DeWitt, M.B., Coury, D.L., Ritacco, D.G., & Trommer, B. (1998). Evaluating medication response in ADHD: Cognitive, behavioral, and single-subject methodology. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 595—607.
15.
Hyman, I.A., Wojtowicz, A., Lee, K.D., Haffner, M.E., Fiorello, C.A., Storlazzi, J.J., & Rosenfeld, J. (1998). School-based methylphenidate placebo protocols: Methodological and practical issues. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 31, 581—594, 614.
16.
Kollins, S.H., Barkley, R.A., & DuPaul, G.J. (2001). Use and management of medications for children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) . Focus on Exceptional Children, 33(5), 1—23.
17.
Lan, I. (2001). Pharmaceuticals: Conspiracy to increase Ritalin profits alleged. The Journal of Law, Medicine, andEthics , 29(1), 100—102.
18.
Leo, J. (2002, January/February). American preschoolers on Ritalin . Society, 52—60.
19.
Livingston, K. (1997). Ritalin: Miracle drug or cop-out?The Public Interest, 127, 3—18.
20.
Lyon, M.R., Cline, J.C., Zepetnek, J., Shan, J.J., & Pang, P. (2001). Effect of the herbal extract combination Panax quinquefolium and Ginko bilboa on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A pilot study. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 26(3), 221—225.
21.
MTA Cooperative Group. (1999). A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 1073—1086.
22.
Northup, J., & Gulley, V. (2001). Some contributions of functional analysis to the assessment of behaviors associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and the effects of stimulant medication. School Psychology Review, 30(2), 227—234.
23.
Northup, J., Gulley, V., Edwards, S., & Fountain, L. (2001). The effects of methylphenidate in the classroom: What dosage, for which children, for what problems?School Psychology Quarterly, 16(3), 303—310.
24.
PBS Frontline. (2001). Medicating kids: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The multimodal treatment study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Retrieved April 24, 2002, from wysiwyg://partner.7//http://www.pbs….ine/shows/medicating/drugs/mta.html
25.
Riccio, C.A., Waldrop, J.M., Reynolds, C.R., & Lowe, P. (2001). Effects of stimulants on the Continuous Performance Test (CPT): Implications for CPT use and interpretation. The Journal for Neuropsychiatry andClinical Neurosciences, 13(3), 326—335.
26.
Robison, L.M., Sclar, D.A., Skaer, T.L., & Galin, R.S. (1999). National trends in the prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the prescribing of methylphenidate among school-age children: 1990-1995. Clinical Pediatrics, 38(4), 209—218.
Scahill, L., Chappell, P.B., Kim, Y.S., & Schultz, R.T. (2001). A placebo-controlled study of guanfacine in the treatment of children with tic disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry,158(7), 1067—1074.
29.
Shinn, M. (1995). Best practices in curriculum based measurement and its use in a problem solving model. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology—III (pp. 547—567). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists .
30.
Spencer, T., Biederman, J., Wilens, T., & Faraone, S. (2001). Efficacy of a mixed amphetamine salts compound in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry,58(8), 775—782.
31.
Szymanski, M.L., & Zolotor, A. (2001). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Management . American Family Physician, 64(8), 1355—1362.
Wilens, T.E., Spencer, T.J., Biederman, J., & Girard, K. (2001). A controlled clinical trial of bupropion for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. The American Journal of Psychiatry,158(2), 282—288.
