Employee-nature interactions: A scoping review on employees’ green exercise behaviors

Abstract

Background

Green exercise is emerging as a promising approach to improve employee well-being.

Objective

This scoping review aimed to map the existing literature on employees’ green exercise behaviors.

Methods

Following the methodological framework suggested by Arksey and O’Malley, relevant studies were identified in the Web of Science and Scopus databases on March 10, 2025. Various study types, including quantitative, qualitative, mixed-methods, and intervention studies published in peer-reviewed English journals, were screened. 13 studies were selected for detailed review, focusing on employed adults engaging in intentional physical activity within natural or semi-natural outdoor environments, such as parks and forests. Exclusions were applied to studies involving non-working populations, those that focused on non-exercise behaviors, as well as studies conducted in indoor or virtual environments. Editorials, opinion articles, theses/dissertations, conference papers, and non-English publications were also excluded.

Results

Among the included studies, nature walking was the most prevalent form of green exercise. Psychological outcomes were the most frequently reported, while occupational outcomes were the least commonly addressed. The findings suggest that there is a growing body of research supporting the benefits of green exercise for employees. However, there remains a significant gap in understanding the facilitators and barriers that influence employees’ participation in green exercise.

Conclusions

Future research should examine underlying mediating and moderating mechanisms. Integrating theoretical frameworks from occupational health psychology and behavioral sciences will be essential to develop a more comprehensive understanding of how and why green exercise is adopted or avoided by employees.

Keywords

outdoor recreation physical activity natural environments workplace health recovery from work wellbeing at work

Introduction

Distinguished from nature exposure involving passive interaction with natural environments (e.g., sitting or observing nature) and bodily movement performed independently of the environmental context, green exercise is conceptualized as the intersection of physical activity and meaningful engagement with natural settings,¹ and is defined as any physical activity carried out outdoors in environments with prominent natural features, such as forests or parks.² The conceptual foundation of green exercise lies in human–nature interaction; therefore, understanding this interaction may help uncover the ontological meanings underlying the concept. In this regard, two central theories explaining the psychological and physiological restorative effects of nature experience come to the forefront. Kaplan's Attention Restoration Theory (ART)³ highlights the renewal of cognitive resources through the effortless engagement of natural stimuli, while Ulrich et al.'s Stress Reduction Theory (SRT)⁴ emphasizes the rapid and automatic reduction of physiological stress responses and the promotion of emotional relief through exposure to nature. Accordingly, green exercise extends beyond the physical health benefits of activity alone, integrating the cognitive restoration proposed by ART and the stress-reducing mechanisms underscored by SRT, thereby offering a holistic experience that supports both mental and emotional well-being.

Green exercise has been the subject of numerous systematic reviews and meta-analyses highlighting various health benefits for diverse population groups. For instance, Wicks et al. emphasized that green exercise increases energy, positive affect and engagement, while reducing anxiety, anger, and hostility.⁵ A meta-analysis conducted by Barton and Pretty synthesized data from ten studies and found that just five minutes of green exercise significantly improved self-esteem and mood.⁶ Similarly, a systematic review by Thompson Coon et al.⁷ compared physical activity in indoor and outdoor settings and found that exercising in natural settings was associated with greater revitalization, self-esteem, positive engagement, subjective vitality, feelings of energy, pleasure, and delight, while decreasing tiredness, frustration, confusion, tension, worry, and depression.

Beyond healthy adults, green exercise has been systematically studied among children and adolescents, demonstrating significant developmental and psychological benefits. Dadvand et al.⁸ emphasized that exposure to green space supports cognitive development in primary school children and associated environmental interaction with improved attention and memory capacities. More recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses also support these findings. For instance, McCormick⁹ synthesized evidence demonstrating that access to green space is positively associated with children's mental well-being, cognitive development, and overall health. Tillmann et al.¹⁰ similarly concluded that interaction with nature contributes to improved mental health, resilience, self-esteem, emotional well-being, and health-related quality of life in children and teenagers. A recent meta-review conducted by Lomax et al.¹¹ confirmed that nature-based physical activities improve mental health and well-being for both children and adolescents.

Additional reviews have explored how nature-based physical activity supports individuals managing chronic diseases or age-related health decline. Bowler et al.¹² conducted a systematic review comparing exercise in natural and synthetic environments and concluded that green environments produced stronger effects on positive engagement and energy, particularly among populations more susceptible to mental fatigue, such as older adults and clinical populations. In a systematic review of 19 studies, Lahart et al.¹³ examined both the acute and chronic effects of green exercise on mental and physical well-being. Their findings revealed improvements in depression, anxiety, and physical functioning, with particularly strong results among older adults and individuals with cardiovascular or metabolic disorders. Furthermore, Yuan et al.¹⁴ conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies on green space exposure in older adults and reported promising evidence for cardiovascular health and reduced mortality. These studies consistently support the conclusion that green exercise is a cost-effective, scalable and inclusive health intervention for medically at-risk groups, especially when conducted in accessible and well-designed green spaces.

Despite the growing body of research emphasizing the positive outcomes of green exercise across diverse populations—including healthy adults, children, adolescents, older adults, and individuals with chronic conditions—there remains a significant gap in the literature regarding employee participation in green exercise. To our knowledge, the green exercise behaviors of the working population, which faces unique time constraints, stressors, and environmental exposures compared to other groups, have not been systematically reviewed to date.

With this perspective, it may be considered particularly necessary to focus on employees, as this group is frequently exposed to occupational demands that heighten vulnerability to both physical and psychological strain. Sedentary work patterns, long working hours, and high levels of job stress contribute to elevated risks of cardiovascular disease, mental health challenges, and burnout.^15–19 Evidence from empirical studies underscores that green exercise directly addresses these risks: interventions such as outdoor walking programs have been shown to reduce work-related rumination and promote psychological detachment, thereby enhancing recovery from occupational stress.^19,20 Similarly, nature-based activities were associated with reductions in anxiety, depression, and burnout symptoms among employees in healthcare and corporate settings.^17,18,21 Moreover, green exercise interventions have demonstrated significant physiological benefits, including reductions in blood pressure, cortisol levels, and cardiovascular risk factors, which are particularly relevant for populations exposed to chronic workplace stress.^16,17,22 Taken together, these findings highlight employees as a population for whom green exercise may serve as a uniquely valuable health-promoting and restorative practice.

Given the potential of nature-based physical activity to enhance overall employee well-being, the significance of this gap becomes clear. Therefore, the present scoping review seeks to systematically map and synthesize the available evidence on employees’ green exercise behaviors. Guided by this aim, the research question is: What is currently known about employees’ participation in green exercise? By addressing this question, the review intends to provide conceptual clarity, map the evidence base, and outline future directions for both research and workplace practice.

Methodology

This scoping review was guided by the framework proposed by Arksey and O’Malley.²³ Both the conceptual complexity and fragmented nature of research on employees’ green exercise behaviors were contributing factors in the use of a scoping review design for this study. This research area lies at the intersection of various disciplines that apply different theoretical perspectives, terminologies, and methodological approaches, such as occupational health, environmental psychology, leisure studies, and organizational behavior. As a result, there is no unified conceptual framework in the literature, and significant heterogeneity is observed in terms of definitions (e.g., “green exercise,” “nature-based physical activity,” “outdoor recreation”), measurement tools, and research contexts. Under these conditions, a traditional systematic review focused on evaluating the effectiveness of interventions or synthesizing homogeneous evidence would be restrictive and risk overlooking important conceptual and contextual nuances.

Moreover, since green exercise is a relatively new concept in occupational research and there is limited consensus on its determinants, mechanisms, and organizational outcomes, the scoping review method allows for the identification of knowledge gaps, theoretical differences, and future research directions rather than making judgments about the quality of the intervention or the magnitude of its effects. Therefore, a scoping review was selected to comprehensively map these diverse and emerging studies, following the methodology proposed by Arksey and O’Malley²³ and the reporting guidelines of the PRISMA-ScR framework.²⁴ This approach allows for the systematic identification and synthesis of studies, independent of their design, thereby providing a panoramic view of how green exercise is conceptualized, operationalized, and examined within working populations. By adopting this approach, the present study seeks not only to summarize existing empirical findings but also to clarify the boundaries of the concept, reveal patterns in the types of evidence generated, and highlight underexplored dimensions such as contextual moderators and mediating mechanisms.

In line with best practices for scoping reviews, the process involved five core stages: (1) identifying the research question, (2) identifying relevant studies, (3) selecting studies, (4) charting the data, and (5) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results.²³

Identifying the research question

Following the framework proposed by Arksey and O’Malley,²³ the first stage of this scoping review involved the formulation of a broad and exploratory research question to guide the scope and objectives of the study. This review focused on mapping the existing literature related to employees’ participation in exercise conducted in natural environments—commonly referred to as green exercise. The central research question that guided the review was: “What is known about employees’ exercise behaviors in natural environments?” This question was intentionally framed to be inclusive, allowing for the identification of diverse study designs, conceptual definitions, population groups, types of natural settings, and associated outcomes. The broad scope of the question aligns with the purpose of a scoping review, which is to explore the extent, range, and nature of research in a specific field and to identify key concepts, gaps, and potential directions for future studies.

Identifying relevant studies

To identify relevant literature, a comprehensive search strategy was developed and applied to the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus databases on March 10, 2025. These databases were selected for their broad disciplinary coverage and relevance to interdisciplinary research spanning health, psychology, and occupational studies.

The search strategy was designed to retrieve studies examining green exercise behaviors among employees and was structured by three main conceptual domains: (1) natural environments, (2) physical activity, and (3) workplace populations. Boolean operators (AND/OR) and truncation symbols (*) were used to ensure inclusivity and sensitivity of results. The search terms for the green environment domain included: natur* OR outdoor* OR green OR greenspace* OR forest OR garden. Terms related to physical activity included: exercis* OR physical activit* OR walk OR run OR recreat* OR hiking OR trekking OR cycling OR biking. Finally, the employee domain included terms such as: employee* OR worker* OR workplace OR staff OR personnel OR professional*. These terms were combined using the “AND” operator to ensure that retrieved studies addressed all three conceptual areas (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Search strategy and keywords.

Green		natur* OR outdoor* OR green OR greenspace* OR forest OR garden
	AND
Exercise		exercis* OR physical activit* OR walk OR run OR recreat* OR hiking OR trekking OR cycling OR biking
	AND
Employee		employee* OR worker* OR workplace OR staff OR personnel OR professional*

Note. The search was limited to title, abstract, and keywords.

Searches were conducted across titles, abstracts, and keywords to maximize the likelihood of identifying relevant studies. No limits were applied on study design, methodological approach, or publication date, but only peer-reviewed journal articles published in English were considered.

Selecting studies

The selection process for this scoping review followed a two-stage screening protocol—title/abstract screening followed by full-text review—based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they focused on employed (e.g., full-time, part-time, self-employed, contract-based) adults engaging in intentional physical activity conducted in natural or semi-natural outdoor environments such as parks, forests, gardens, or urban green spaces. Both quantitative, qualitative, mixed-methods, and intervention studies published in peer-reviewed journals were eligible. Studies published in English were included.

Studies were excluded if they (a) involved non-working populations (e.g., retirees), (b) described non-exercise behaviors (e.g., passive nature viewing), or (c) took place exclusively in indoor or virtual environments. Editorials, opinion papers, theses/dissertations, conference papers, and non-English journal articles were also excluded (see Table 2).

Table 2.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Criteria	Inclusion	Exclusion
Population	Employed adults (e.g., full-time, part-time, self-employed, contract-based)	Unemployed individuals, retirees
Behavior	Involves intentional physical activity (e.g., walking, running, cycling)	Non-exercise behaviors (e.g., sitting, viewing nature)
Environment	Conducted in natural or semi-natural outdoor settings (e.g., forests, parks)	Indoor or simulated/virtual environments
Publication Type	Peer-reviewed journal articles	Conference papers, theses, reports without peer review
Language	Published in English	Non-English articles

Charting the data

After the final study set was selected, relevant information was systematically extracted from each article and organized using a structured data spreadsheet form created in Microsoft Excel. As shown in Table 3, for each included study, the following data were recorded: author(s), year of publication, country of origin, study design, population characteristics, type of green exercise activity, description of the natural environment, reported outcomes, and theoretical frameworks.

Table 3.

Characteristics of included studies.

Author (Year)	Country	Study design	Population	Green exercise type	Environment	Outcomes	Theoretical framework
Korpela & Kinnunen (2011) ¹⁵	Finland	Cross-sectional survey	527 employees	Unstructured, self-initiated leisure time physical activities (e.g., cycling, nature walking, gardening)	Natural environmentsand urban greenspaces	Life satisfaction, recovery experiences (detachment, relaxation, mastery, control), need for recovery from work	Effort-Recovery Model, Conservation of Resources Theory
Brown et al. (2014)¹⁶	UK	Randomized controlled trial	94 office workers	8-week nature walking intervention during lunch breaks	Trees, spaces of maintained grass, public footpaths, and country lanes	Blood pressure, body mass index, cardiovascular disease risk, heart rate, heart rate variability, predicted aerobic fitness, general health, physical health, mental health	-
Calogiuri et al. (2016)²²	Norway	Randomized controlled trial	14 employees	Structured 2-week biking on a forest trail and resistance training on a grassy lawn	Green areas nearby the employees’ workplace	Perceived restorativeness (fascination, being away), positive affect, tranquility, blood pressure, cortisol	Stress Recovery Theory, Attention Restoration Theory
Colley et al. (2017)²⁵	UK	Cross-sectional survey	366 knowledge workers	Unstructured, self-initiated leisure time outdoor activities (e.g., walking, cycling)	Workplace greenspaces	Restoration	Attention Restoration Theory, Stress Recovery Theory
de Bloom et al. (2017)²⁰	Finland	Randomized controlled trial	153 knowledge workers	Guided 2-week park walk during lunch breaks	Parks nearby companies	Detachment, relaxation, enjoyment, restoration, fatigue, job satisfaction	Conservation of Resources Theory, Attention Restoration Theory
Korpela et al. (2017)²⁶	Finland	One-year longitudinal study	841 employees	Unstructured, self-initiated leisure time physical activities in natural surroundings (e.g., cycling,running)	Natural surroundings (e.g., garden, greenspace)	Well-being (happiness, vitality, vigor, creativity)	Attention Restoration Theory, Stress Recovery Theory
Korpela et al. (2017)²⁷	Finland	Two-year longitudinal study	664 employees	Unstructured, self-initiated leisure time physical activities in natural surroundings (e.g., cycling,running)	Natural surroundings (e.g., garden, greenspace)	Well-being (happiness, vitality, vigor, creativity)	Attention Restoration Theory, Stress Recovery Theory
Kaiseler et al. (2019)²⁸	UK	Mixed-method study	97 military personnel	5-day outdoor and adventure sports intervention (e.g., indoor climbing and caving, clay pigeon shooting, kayaking, mountain biking)	Natural environments	Perceived well-being (self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, personal growth), basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness)	Basic Psychological Needs Theory
Ikeda et al. (2021)²⁹	Japan	Cross-sectional survey	6466 workers	Unstructured, self-initiated leisure time forest/greenspace walking	Forests and urban greenspaces	Stress-coping skills	-
Daniels et al. (2022)¹⁷	Belgium	Randomized controlled trial	45 employees	3-week nature-based intervention (e.g., nature walk, cycling tour)	Nature reserve	Burnout, cortisol level, cognitive performance	Stress Recovery Theory, Attention Restoration Theory
Johnsen et al. (2022)¹⁹	Norway	Quasi-experimental study	52 office workers	4-month outdoor walking intervention during lunch breaks	Green university campuses	Positive affect, negative affect, vitality, affective rumination, detachment, ego restoration	-
Kavanaugh et al. (2022)¹⁸	USA	Randomized controlled trial	34 healthcare professionals	3-h Shinrin-Yoku (forest bathing) walk intervention	Forest	Burnout	-
Kim et al. (2022)²¹	Korea	Quasi-experimental study	13 medical workers	2-day forest healing programe (e.g., outdoor activities, wood working, warm-up exercises, walking)	Forest	Perceived stress, sleep quality (sleep onset, sleep duration, insomnia severity, sleepiness), anxiety and depression, somatization symptoms, melatonin, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-s), cortisol, DHEA-s/cortisol	-

Collating, summarizing, and reporting the results

Following the data charting process, the extracted information was collated and organized to enable a structured synthesis aligned with the research questions of the review. In this stage, studies were reviewed in-depth to explore how green exercise was conceptualized, what types of environments were involved, how activities were implemented, and which outcomes were reported. Then, a content-based synthesis approach was used to identify patterns and thematic clusters. An inductive approach was applied to identify conceptual overlaps and thematic consistencies, and these findings were subsequently synthesized into a narrative framework. In line with the scoping review methodology, studies were not assessed for methodological quality. The overall process allowed for a comprehensive mapping of the literature without limiting the diversity of study designs or theoretical approaches.

Results

The initial search identified 11,888 records through database searches. After removing duplicates, a total of 10,070 records remained. Following the screening of the titles and abstracts of the identified articles, 10,053 were excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria. The full-text versions of 17 articles were then assessed for eligibility. From these reports, 13 studies were selected for detailed review. A PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1) was created to illustrate the study selection process.

Figure 1.

PRISMA flow diagram.

Characteristics of included studies

A total of 13 studies were included in this scoping review, representing a diverse range of countries, research designs, occupational groups, and green exercise interventions. The studies were published between 2011 and 2022 and were conducted in various countries, including Finland (n = 4), the United Kingdom (n = 3), Norway (n = 2), and one each from Japan, South Korea, Belgium, and the United States. In terms of study design, randomized controlled trials were the most frequently employed (n = 5), followed by cross-sectional surveys (n = 3), quasi-experimental designs (n = 2), one mixed-method study, and one longitudinal cohort study spanning two years. The included studies examined diverse employee populations, such as office workers, knowledge workers, healthcare professionals, military personnel, and medical workers.

Types of green exercise

The included studies demonstrated a broad spectrum of green exercise activities practiced by employees, encompassing both structured interventions and unstructured, self-initiated leisure activities in natural environments. Across the literature, these activities varied considerably in intensity, duration, and purpose, ranging from light, restorative exposure to moderate and vigorous physical activity.

Unstructured green exercise referred to individually initiated, leisure-time physical activities undertaken without formal facilitation. Common examples included walking, cycling, running, swimming, and gardening in natural surroundings such as forests, parks, and waterfront areas. Studies conducted among Finnish, Japanese, and Canadian employees consistently indicated that these forms of self-directed outdoor activity serve as accessible means of psychological restoration and stress reduction during nonwork hours. Employees were found to use nearby natural spaces—such as workplace gardens, urban parks, and forest trails—to recover from daily work demands and enhance overall well-being.^15,^25–27^,29

In contrast, structured green exercise involved planned, organized, and often supervised programs intentionally designed to integrate nature exposure with physical activity. These interventions typically involved regular schedules, specific durations, and guidance provided by organizations or research teams. Examples included lunchtime or park-based walking programs, short-term cycling or resistance training in natural settings, and multiweek exercise sessions in green spaces. Such structured formats were shown to promote consistency in participation and to enhance recovery-related experiences such as psychological detachment and mood improvement. The evidence suggests that structured programs can effectively embed green exercise within employees’ routines, particularly when organizationally supported.^16,17,20,22

Several studies explored adventure and nature-based sport programs, which involved more intensive and skill-oriented outdoor activities such as kayaking, mountain biking, climbing, or caving.²⁸ These group-based interventions, often implemented in high-demand professions such as the military, required greater physical engagement and preparation than casual forms of green exercise. Another group of research focused on mindfulness-based or therapeutic green exercise, which prioritized mental restoration and sensory immersion rather than physical intensity.^18,21 This type of activity was demonstrated by forest bathing (Shinrin-Yoku) and forest healing programes, which frequently combined contemplative or meditative elements with guided nature walks. In addition, one of the studies examined the integration of green exercise into the workday, particularly through workplace-based or lunchtime walking programs.¹⁹ By using existing green infrastructure such as lawns, trails, and campus parks, these initiatives allowed employees to engage in restorative physical activity without disrupting their professional responsibilities.

Natural environments

The included studies were conducted across a wide range of natural and semi-natural environments in which employees engaged in physical activity. Three main environmental patterns were identified: forest-based settings, urban and semi-urban green spaces, and workplace-integrated or designed environments.

Forests were among the most frequently used environments, particularly in studies focusing on immersion and mindfulness. These settings included dense woodlands, forest trails, and forest parks where participants engaged in activities such as walking, cycling, and structured forest programs.^18,21,22,29 Some studies employed organized interventions emphasizing immersion and mindfulness in forest contexts, while others documented self-initiated physical activities such as walking or hiking along forest paths.

Urban and semi-urban green spaces formed another prominent category. These settings included public parks, green corridors, and maintained natural areas located near workplaces or residential areas, such as trees, grassy areas, and footpaths.^16,20 Activities typically involved walking or cycling, either individually or as part of guided group sessions. Many interventions were implemented during lunch breaks or after working hours, indicating the practicality of green exercise within everyday occupational routines.

Workplace-integrated or designed green spaces were also common in the reviewed studies. These included university campuses, corporate grounds, and lawns near office buildings that offered employees convenient access to outdoor areas. Interventions conducted in these settings often involved scheduled walking programs or light resistance exercises, while some studies observed spontaneous employee use of these spaces for self-initiated physical activity.^19,22,25

A smaller number of studies were conducted in adventure-based or garden environments. Adventure-based contexts included natural reserves, mountains, or coastal areas used for structured outdoor activities such as mountain biking, kayaking, and caving. These settings required higher levels of organization, equipment, and group participation compared to unstructured forms of green exercise. Gardens were occasionally mentioned as smaller-scale natural settings where employees engaged in light physical activity during leisure time.^{15,17,26–28}

Psychological outcomes

The included studies reported a wide range of psychological, cognitive, physiological, and occupational outcomes associated with employees’ engagement in green exercise. Among them, psychological outcomes were the most frequently assessed.

A consistent pattern across the studies indicated that green exercise enhances life satisfaction and happiness. For instance, self-initiated engagement in natural settings during leisure time was positively related to employees’ overall life satisfaction, highlighting the broader evaluative benefits of spending active time in nature.¹⁵ Similarly, unstructured physical activity in natural surroundings was associated with elevated levels of happiness, underscoring the enduring psychological value of such engagement.^26,27 Together, these findings suggest that regular interaction with natural environments supports employees’ subjective well-being beyond immediate affective responses.

Another recurring theme concerned affective states, with several interventions reporting improvements in mood following exposure to green environments. Walking and cycling programs conducted in natural or semi-natural settings consistently decreased negative affect and increased positive affect, reflecting the mood-regulating potential of green exercise.^19,22 In one intervention combining forest trail biking and lawn-based resistance training, participants exhibited a marked increase in positive affect and a non-significant trend toward greater tranquility.²² The limited effect on tranquility can be attributed to contextual factors such as high baseline tranquility levels, short intervention duration, and environmental or contextual variables (e.g., weather, group dynamics, or workplace stress) that could have moderated the psychological response to green exercise.

In addition to short-term affective benefits, green exercise was linked to deeper dimensions of psychological growth and personal development. Interventions incorporating outdoor and adventure-based activities were shown to enhance self-acceptance, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth—key components of eudaimonic well-being.²⁸ These programs also fulfilled all three basic psychological needs identified in the Basic Psychological Needs Theory—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—suggesting that green exercise can simultaneously satisfy fundamental motivational processes while promoting sustained psychological restoration.

Furthermore, psychological distress outcomes such as anxiety and depression demonstrated measurable improvement following participation in green exercise. For instance, short-term forest healing programs led to reductions in both anxiety and depression among medical workers, though somatization symptoms showed no statistically significant change.²¹ This pattern suggests that brief exposure to natural environments may effectively target emotional symptoms but may be less influential on somatic or chronic physiological conditions.

Finally, across the reviewed studies, enjoyment consistently emerged as a salient experiential outcome of green exercise.²⁰ Interventions involving guided walks in parks or other natural settings significantly elevated participants’ enjoyment levels, reinforcing the role of intrinsic pleasure and engagement as drivers of sustained participation in outdoor activity.

Cognitive outcomes

The reviewed studies collectively demonstrated that employees’ engagement in green exercise is consistently associated with a range of cognitive and restorative outcomes, encompassing enhanced recovery experiences, vitality, creativity, and stress-coping capacities. Across both cross-sectional and intervention-based designs, evidence indicated that green exercise promotes cognitive restoration and psychological replenishment, whether undertaken in self-initiated leisure settings or structured workplace programs.

A recurring theme across the studies was the restorative and recovery-enhancing function of self-initiated physical activity in natural environments. Unstructured activities such as walking, cycling, and gardening were positively related to feelings of relaxation, control, and mastery, suggesting that autonomous engagement with nature facilitates mental detachment from work and cognitive renewal.¹⁵ Longitudinal evidence further supported these associations, revealing that repeated engagement in nature-based activities fosters enduring vitality, vigor, and creativity among employees.^26,27 Similarly, self-initiated walking and cycling in workplace green spaces were associated with stronger perceptions of restoration, highlighting the cognitive benefits of proximal exposure to natural environments.²⁵ Large-scale survey evidence reinforced these patterns: employees who regularly engaged in green exercise, particularly forest and park walking, demonstrated improved stress-coping skills, reflecting the potential of such activities to enhance cognitive resilience in occupational contexts.²⁹

In addition to self-directed behaviors, structured green exercise interventions produced comparable cognitive and mental health benefits. Programs incorporating guided or group-based walking, cycling, and resistance training consistently yielded improvements in fatigue reduction, relaxation, and restoration. Short-term interventions—ranging from two to eight weeks—conducted during lunch breaks or near workplace settings reported significant increases in mental health such as perceived restorativeness, particularly in dimensions including “fascination” and “being away”.^16,20,22 These findings suggest that even moderate exposure to natural settings can effectively replenish attentional resources and mental energy during the workday.

Longer-term interventions provided evidence for more sustained effects on vitality and cognitive functioning. For instance, outdoor walking programs extending over several months led to enhanced vitality, while adventure-based or physically engaging activities produced measurable improvements in cognitive performance.^17,19 Together, these results imply that consistent engagement in green exercise contributes not only to short-term restoration but also to longer-term cognitive enrichment.

Finally, evidence from quasi-experimental research demonstrated that even short-term exposure to natural environments can positively influence perceived stress and sleep quality. Participants in a two-day forest healing program involving walking, warm-up exercises, and woodworking exhibited reductions in stress and improvements in sleep, underscoring the immediate restorative capacity of nature-based interventions, even over limited durations.²¹

Physiological outcomes

The reviewed studies collectively demonstrated that green exercise contributes to a range of physiological benefits, encompassing cardiovascular, metabolic, and hormonal outcomes that reflect improved physical health and reduced stress reactivity. Across both short-term and long-term interventions, exposure to natural environments during physical activity was consistently associated with favorable changes in key physiological parameters.

A predominant finding across the studies concerned cardiovascular functioning and overall physical health. Interventions involving regular walking, cycling, and resistance training in green environments produced measurable improvements in cardiovascular indicators such as heart rate, blood pressure, and aerobic fitness. For instance, an eight-week nature walking program led to significant reductions in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate stress response and recovery, and overall cardiovascular disease risk, alongside improvements in predicted aerobic fitness and physical health.¹⁶ Consistent with these results, shorter green exercise interventions—such as a two-week program incorporating biking and lawn-based resistance training—also yielded declines in blood pressure, reinforcing the potential of nature-integrated physical activity to enhance cardiovascular regulation even within brief durations.²²

Beyond cardiovascular outcomes, the reviewed evidence highlighted the physiological stress-regulating effects of green exercise through hormonal mechanisms. Several studies examined changes in cortisol as a biomarker of stress, reporting decreases in salivary cortisol levels following structured outdoor activities such as walking and cycling in natural settings.^17,22 These reductions suggest that green exercise not only supports cardiovascular efficiency but also mitigates physiological stress responses by modulating hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activity.

In addition to cortisol, other endocrine markers were assessed to provide a broader understanding of green exercise's impact on physiological balance. In a quasi-experimental study with medical workers, a two-day forest healing program involving walking, warm-up exercises, and woodworking produced notable hormonal changes.²¹ Although cortisol, melatonin, and the DHEA-s/cortisol ratio did not significantly change, a notable decrease in dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-s) levels was observed, suggesting subtle yet meaningful physiological adjustments associated with short-term immersion in natural settings.

Occupational outcomes

Although occupational outcomes were the least frequently examined among the reviewed studies, the available evidence consistently indicated that green exercise contributes to employees’ occupational well-being through enhanced recovery, greater job satisfaction, and reduced burnout. Whether undertaken in structured workplace programs or as self-initiated leisure activities, engagement in physical activity within natural environments appeared to facilitate psychological detachment from work, mitigate work rumination, and foster more positive work-related attitudes.

A central finding across studies concerned the role of green exercise in supporting recovery and psychological detachment—the process by which employees mentally disengage from job demands during nonwork periods. Both unstructured and organized forms of green exercise, such as walking, cycling, or outdoor recreation in natural environments, were associated with improved capacity to detach from work-related stressors and to fulfill the need for recovery after demanding workdays.^15,19 Regular participation in such activities, particularly during work breaks or after hours, allowed employees to create restorative mental distance from occupational concerns and to experience renewed psychological resources.

Several studies also highlighted improvements in job satisfaction and affective rumination as outcomes of green exercise. Interventions conducted during work breaks, including guided lunchtime walks in park settings, were associated with higher levels of job satisfaction and reduced affective work rumination—both critical components of employees’ recovery processes and overall occupational functioning.^19,20 These findings suggest that incorporating nature-based physical activities within the workday can strengthen employees’ affective well-being and positive attitudes toward their work.

Moreover, the evidence pointed to reductions in burnout symptoms following both short-term and long-term green exercise interventions. Employees participating in multiweek or even brief single-session nature-based programs reported notable declines in burnout indicators such as emotional exhaustion and fatigue. For instance, nature walks and forest-based activities such as Shinrin-Yoku (forest bathing) were found to reduce burnout among employees, highlighting the therapeutic and restorative potential of natural environments in occupational contexts.^17,18

Taken together, the reviewed studies reveal a consistent pattern: green exercise fosters occupational well-being by promoting psychological detachment, enhancing job satisfaction, and reducing affective work rumination and burnout. Through these mechanisms, engagement in natural environments not only supports employees’ recovery from work stress but also strengthens their long-term resilience and satisfaction in professional life.

Theoretical frameworks

The theoretical grounding of the included studies varied considerably, with some studies drawing on well-established environmental psychology models, while others lacked explicit theoretical framing. Out of the 13 studies reviewed, eight explicitly referenced at least one theoretical framework to guide their hypotheses, intervention design, or interpretation of results, whereas five studies did not report using any formal theory.

The most frequently cited frameworks were the ART³⁰ and the SRT.⁴ ART was employed in six studies including de Bloom et al.,²⁰ Korpela et al.,^26,27 Colley,²⁵ Calogiuri et al.,²² and Daniels et al.¹⁷ where natural environments were viewed as attentionally restorative, facilitating cognitive recovery and mental clarity after work-related stress or sustained concentration. These studies typically emphasized elements of nature that promote involuntary attention, such as fascination and a sense of being away—key constructs within ART. SRT was applied in five studies including Korpela et al.,^26,27 Colley et al.,²⁵ Calogiuri et al.,²² and Daniels et al.,¹⁷ which conceptualized natural settings as physiologically and emotionally calming spaces that support autonomic recovery from stress. These studies often linked nature exposure to measurable outcomes such as reductions in cortisol, blood pressure, or perceived stress—aligning with SRT's emphasis on immediate affective and physiological restoration.

Apart from environmental perspectives, the studies incorporated diverse theoretical models to better understand psychological and occupational outcomes. For instance, the Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory³¹ was referenced in the work of Korpela and Kinnunen¹⁵ and de Bloom et al.,²⁰ who interpreted green exercise as a means of replenishing depleted personal and psychological resources—particularly in the context of recovery experiences. The Effort-Recovery Model³² was applied in a study conducted by Korpela and Kinnunen,¹⁵ where green exercise was conceptualized as a mechanism for facilitating psychological detachment and recovery from daily occupational demands. According to this model, recovery is achieved when individuals are no longer exposed to work-related stressors and can engage in restorative activities—such as green exercise—that help interrupt strain accumulation and support long-term occupational health. In addition, the Basic Psychological Needs Theory, a component of Self-Determination Theory,³³ was employed in Kaiseler et al.'s²⁸ study to explain how green exercise can fulfill core human needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

On the other hand, while contributing valuable data on green exercise behavior and outcomes, five studies reported empirical findings without referencing any explicit theoretical framework, relying instead on outcome-driven approaches.^{16,18,19,21,29}

Discussion

This scoping review synthesized current empirical evidence on employees’ green exercise behaviors. The findings demonstrate that green exercise, whether structured or self-initiated, offers significant benefits across multiple domains of employee health and well-being.

The majority of the studies emphasized psychological gains as the primary benefit of green exercise. Across multiple studies, green exercise was consistently associated with increased life satisfaction, happiness, and positive affect.^15,22,26,27 Notably, even relatively short interventions, such as guided park walks or forest-based programs, led to meaningful improvements in emotional states, including reduced negative affect, anxiety, and depression.^19–21 These improvements align with Stress Recovery Theory,⁴ which posits that exposure to natural environments elicits positive affective responses and activates parasympathetic processes that alleviate stress and emotional distress. Moreover, the broader psychological impact of green exercise extends beyond emotional recovery; for instance, Kaiseler et al.²⁸ demonstrated its role in promoting deeper well-being through enhanced self-acceptance, purpose in life, and the fulfillment of basic psychological needs. This finding can be interpreted through the lens of Self-Determination Theory,³³ suggesting that nature-based activities foster autonomy, competence, and relatedness—core psychological needs that underlie sustained motivation and well-being. Taken together, these results suggest that integrating green exercise into employees’ daily routines—whether informally or through organizational support—can contribute to both short-term emotional relief and long-term psychological flourishing.

Although green exercise appears to have generally positive effects on employees, not all outcomes demonstrated statistically significant improvements. For instance, in Calogiuri et al.'s²² study, tranquility levels increased following the intervention, but this change was not statistically significant. Similarly, Kim et al.²¹ reported reductions in anxiety and depression, yet the decrease in somatization symptoms did not reach statistical significance. These findings suggest that while green exercise may enhance certain aspects of employees’ psychological well-being, its impact may vary across different emotional and physiological dimensions. From a theoretical standpoint, both the ART³⁰ and the Stress Recovery Theory⁴ provide complementary explanations for such inconsistencies. ART posits that natural environments restore directed attention and reduce cognitive fatigue, but this restorative effect depends on the individual's perceived compatibility with the environment and the degree of psychological immersion during exposure. Similarly, SRT explains that contact with nature elicits affective and physiological recovery from stress; however, these benefits may be moderated by baseline stress levels, environmental quality, and the extent to which individuals can detach from work-related concerns. Therefore, the contradictory results of the research may therefore be due to differences in how well participants interact with and experience restorative processes in natural settings, emphasizing that the benefits of green exercise vary depending on the context rather than being constant.

The reviewed studies consistently demonstrate that green exercise has a positive influence on various cognitive outcomes among employees. Korpela and Kinnunen¹⁵ found that leisure-time activities, such as gardening, walking, and cycling in nature enhanced recovery experiences, including relaxation, control, and mastery. Additionally, longitudinal studies conducted by Korpela et al.^26,27 demonstrated positive correlations between green exercise and vigor, creativity, and vitality. These improvements in vitality, creativity, and restoration can be interpreted through the principles of ART,³ which posits that exposure to natural environments enables involuntary attention and facilitates mental recovery from directed attention fatigue, a common consequence of cognitively demanding work environments. Walking and cycling in green spaces were associated with improvements in restoration and stress-coping skills.^25,29 Intervention studies also support these outcomes: Brown et al.,¹⁶ Calogiuri et al.,²² de Bloom et al.,²⁰ Daniels et al.,¹⁷ and Johnsen et al.¹⁹ all reported enhanced cognitive wellbeing following workplace green exercise interventions. Even short-term programs, such as Kim et al.'s²¹ two-day forest healing intervention, yielded improved perceived stress and sleep quality, highlighting the strong cognitive benefits of green exercise for employees.

The reviewed studies also highlighted important physiological benefits of green exercise, particularly in relation to cardiovascular health and stress-related hormonal responses. Brown et al.¹⁶ found that an eight-week nature walking program significantly reduced blood pressure, heart rate stress response, and cardiovascular disease risk. Similarly, Calogiuri et al.²² reported lowered blood pressure after a two-week green exercise intervention near the workplace. In terms of hormonal outcomes, several studies used cortisol as a biomarker for stress and observed reductions following green exercise.^17,22 Kim et al.²¹ extended this research by examining a broader range of endocrine markers in a two-day forest healing program, finding a significant decrease in DHEA-s levels, although other hormonal changes were not statistically significant. This limited hormonal response can be explained by several factors. First, the short duration of the intervention may have been insufficient to produce measurable endocrine adaptations, as hormonal regulation typically requires repeated or prolonged exposure to stress-reducing environments. Second, individual differences in baseline hormone levels and circadian rhythms may have attenuated observable group-level effects. Third, contextual influences such as participants’ occupational stress, workload, or sleep quality may have mitigated the program's physiological impact. Taken together, these factors suggest that while short-term nature-based interventions can trigger acute endocrine responses, sustained participation or longer exposure may be necessary to achieve broader hormonal changes. The physiological improvements, on the other hand, align with the Stress Recovery Theory,⁴ which suggests that natural environments elicit automatic affective and autonomic responses that facilitate recovery from stress. The observed reductions in blood pressure, heart rate, and cortisol levels provide empirical support for this mechanism, indicating that green exercise contributes to cardiovascular stability and stress regulation among employees.

Occupational outcomes were less frequently examined in the reviewed studies compared to psychological and physiological domains, yet the available evidence provides important early insights into how green exercise can enhance work-related well-being. Daniels et al.¹⁷ and Kavanaugh et al.¹⁸ both reported significant reductions in burnout symptoms following green exercise interventions, suggesting that exposure to natural environments may facilitate emotional recovery from work demands. Similarly, Korpela and Kinnunen¹⁵ found that green exercise supported employees’ psychological detachment and fulfillment of recovery needs, while Johnsen et al.¹⁹ demonstrated that lunchtime nature walks not only promoted detachment but also reduced work-related rumination—an outcome closely tied to job stress and diminished performance. Complementing these findings, de Bloom et al.²⁰ observed that regular park walks were associated with increased job satisfaction, indicating that green exercise may contribute to more sustained positive work attitudes. From an occupational health perspective, these findings related to detachment from work and reduced burnout resonate with the Effort-Recovery Model³² and the COR Theory,³¹ both of which emphasize the restoration of depleted resources through engagement in restorative off-job activities such as green exercise. By reducing emotional exhaustion and fostering recovery experiences, green exercise can enhance employees’ capacity to perform effectively and consistently. Thus, the evidence reviewed supports green exercise, including walking meetings, outdoor breaks, or post-work nature-based activities, as a valuable and adaptable strategy to mitigate burnout, improve job satisfaction, and potentially reduce absenteeism. Taken together, these theoretical frameworks provide a coherent explanation of how green exercise supports employee well-being. Stress Recovery and Attention Restoration theories clarify the affective, cognitive, and physiological recovery processes elicited by contact with nature, while Self-Determination and Effort-Recovery perspectives highlight its motivational and resource-restorative dimensions. Integrating these views deepens the theoretical understanding of green exercise as a multifaceted contributor to employees’ health and flourishing.

Gaps in the literature and future research directions

Despite these promising results, several important gaps in the literature were identified. Firstly, the majority of studies focused on outcome measurement without integrating theoretical frameworks or testing causal pathways. While these studies provide valuable evidence on the benefits of green exercise, they often lack the conceptual grounding necessary to explain why, how, or under what conditions these benefits occur. This absence of theory-driven design can limit the generalizability of their findings. Future research could apply behavioral health theories, such as the Health Belief Model, which addresses individual beliefs about health behaviors; the Theory of Planned Behavior, which emphasizes the role of intention, perceived behavioral control, and social norms; and the COM-B Model, which considers multiple layers of influence from individual to organizational and environmental factors, to the design or interpretation of green exercise interventions.

Secondly, although the psychological, cognitive, and physiological benefits of green exercise were increasingly reported, there remained a striking lack of empirical focus on occupational outcomes. Very few studies explicitly measured how green exercise influenced employees’ functioning in their professional roles or how these activities translated into tangible improvements in work-related capacities. As such, the organizational relevance of green exercise, beyond general health enhancement, was weakly evidenced in the current literature. This absence is particularly notable given that green exercise is often proposed as an employee health promotion tool. Without clear evidence linking it to occupationally meaningful outcomes, its justification within human resource strategies or organizational policy remains limited. Future research should prioritize examining the occupational relevance of green exercise by integrating direct measures of work-related outcomes into intervention and observational study designs. This can include constructs such as work engagement, job satisfaction, task performance, absenteeism, presenteeism, burnout, and turnover intentions. Researchers should aim to move beyond general health or well-being outcomes and establish whether green exercise contributes to employees’ functional capacities, resilience, and sustainable performance at work.

Thirdly, while the benefits of green exercise are increasingly well-documented, none of the reviewed studies systematically addressed the facilitators (e.g., supportive workplace policies, access to green spaces, peer support) or barriers (e.g., time constraints, lack of access, job demands, weather conditions) that affect employees’ ability to participate in green exercise. This represents a significant limitation for both theory and practice. Without identifying these contextual determinants, it is difficult to translate positive findings into sustainable workplace interventions. Future research should adopt ecological and systems-based approaches to identify multi-level facilitators and barriers, and test how organizational, environmental, and individual-level factors interact to shape green exercise participation.

Additionally, studies testing mediating variables—factors that explain the process by which green exercise leads to desired outcomes were scarce. For instance, although many studies reported improved well-being, they often did not explore whether this effect is mediated by psychological experiences such as recovery, enjoyment, connectedness to nature, pro-environmental behavior, or reduced stress and cognitive fatigue. Identifying mediators is essential for understanding how green exercise works and for optimizing intervention components. Similarly, moderating variables, such as gender, age, personality, socioeconomic status, job type, work schedule flexibility, organizational support, organizational and national culture, access to green space, or characteristics of the green space, could help explain for whom green exercise is most beneficial and under what circumstances. Ignoring these variables can lead to overly generalized conclusions and limit the relevance of findings across different employee populations and workplace settings. Future research should move beyond outcome measurement to adopt theory-based approaches that guide the entire research process—from hypothesis development to intervention design and evaluation. Studies should embed green exercise interventions within established models of health behavior and occupational well-being and explicitly test mediators and moderators using appropriate statistical techniques (e.g., structural equation modeling, moderated mediation models). Doing so will help reveal the mechanisms of change, context-specific pathways, and tailored strategies needed to effectively integrate green exercise into diverse organizational environments.

The last notable gap in the existing literature is the absence of qualitative studies exploring employees’ lived experiences, perceptions, and contextual realities related to green exercise. All studies reviewed relied on quantitative designs, using surveys, biomarker data, or pre/post intervention measures to assess outcomes. While these methods are valuable for identifying patterns and testing hypotheses, they offer limited insight into how employees make sense of green exercise, what it means to them personally or professionally, and how their sociocultural, organizational, or environmental contexts shape participation. This lack of qualitative inquiry restricts our understanding of the subjective dimensions of green exercise, such as how employees perceive nature in relation to their work, how they navigate institutional or cultural norms, and what barriers or enablers they encounter in real time. Future research should incorporate qualitative methods—including in-depth interviews, focus groups, ethnographic observation, or diary studies—to explore how employees experience, interpret, and integrate green exercise into their daily routines. These approaches can uncover context-specific meanings, unspoken norms, and emotional or symbolic associations with green space and movement. Qualitative research can also identify culturally or organizationally embedded barriers that may not surface in quantitative assessments. Ideally, these methods should be used either independently or as part of mixed-method designs, enabling researchers to triangulate quantitative outcomes with rich, narrative data that illuminate the “why” and “how” behind green exercise behavior.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Güney Çetinkaya

Ethical considerations and informed consent statements

Ethical approval and informed consent were not required for this study as it is a review of existing literature.

Author contributions

Conceptualization: BA, BK; Data curation: BA; Formal analysis and investigation: BA; Methodology: BA; Writing—original draft: BA; Writing—review and editing: GÇ, BK.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability statement

All data discussed in this article were derived from previously published studies, which were cited in the reference list.

Generative AI

The authors used AI-assisted writing tools in order to grammar check and language improvement.

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