Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Purpose

To examine the impact of China's stringent COVID-19 policies on social workers’ employment quality through the lens of organization–government ties.

Method

Two waves of the China Social Work Longitudinal Study, 2019 (N = 5,934) and 2022 (N = 5,287), were analyzed with multilevel random-effects models. Employment quality comprised job stability, income satisfaction, institutional support, and turnover intention. Organizational-government ties were key predictors.

Results

Job stability, income satisfaction, and institutional support improved post-pandemic, yet turnover intention also rose. Stronger organizational-government ties were associated with higher employment quality and buffered pandemic-period shocks.

Conclusion

While government support provided critical stability and resources, the accompanying administrative demands increased pressure on social workers to leave the profession. Policy should therefore aim to balance state support with professional autonomy, ensuring resource stability while safeguarding clear role boundaries to sustain the workforce.

Keywords

social worker employment quality government-organization ties COVID-19

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abrams

Ando

Hinkle

(1998). Psychological attachment to the group: Cross-cultural differences in organizational identification and subjective norms as predictors of workers’ turnover intentions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(10), 1027–1039. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672982410001

Ackerman

Paolucci

(1983). Objective and subjective income adequacy: Their relationship to perceived life quality measures. Social Indicators Research, 12(1), 25–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00428859

Aleksynska

(2018). Temporary employment, work quality, and job satisfaction. Journal of Comparative Economics, 46(3), 722–735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2018.07.004

Arranz

J. M.

García-Serrano

Hernanz

(2018). Short-time work and employment stability: Evidence from a policy change. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 56(1), 189–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjir.12250

Ashcroft

Sur

Greenblatt

Donahue

(2022). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social workers at the frontline: A survey of Canadian social workers. The British Journal of Social Work, 52(3), 1724–1746. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcab158

C., L.

Drolet

Kaushik

Charles

Franco

Henton

Hirning

McConnell

Nicholas

Nickerson

Ossais

Shenton

Sussman

Verdicchio

Walsh

C. A.

Wickman

(2023). Impact of COVID-19 on social work field education: Perspectives of Canadian social work students. Journal of Social Work, 23(3), 522–547. https://doi.org/10.1177/14680173231162499

Booth

Venville

(2020). Working it out – hospital social work in the midst of a pandemic. Australian Social Work, 73(4), 510–511. https://doi.org/10.1080/0312407X.2020.1801124

Burchell

Sehnbruch

Piasna

Agloni

(2014). The quality of employment and decent work: Definitions, methodologies, and ongoing debates. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 38(2), 459–477. https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/bet067

Cederbaum

J. A.

Ross

A. M.

Zerden

Estenson

., Zelnick

Ruth

B. J.

(2022). “We are on the frontlines too”: A qualitative content analysis of US social workers’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health & Social Care in the Community, 30(6), e5412–e5422. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13963

10.

Cho

Y. J.

Song

H. J.

(2017). Determinants of turnover intention of social workers: Effects of emotional labor and organizational trust. Public Personnel Management, 46(1), 41–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091026017696395

11.

Clark

A. E.

(2015). What makes a good job? Job quality and job satisfaction. IZA World of Labor. https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.215

12.

De Corte

Verschuere

(2014). The autonomy of organised civil society in strategic policy decision-making: A resource-dependence perspective. In Brandsen

Trommel

Verschuere

(Eds.), Manufacturing civil society: Principles, practices and effects (pp. 159–181). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137351630_9

13.

Deranty

Macmillan

(2012). The ILO’s decent work initiative: Suggestions for an extension of the notion of “decent work.” Journal of Social Philosophy, 43. https://doi.org/10.1111/josp.12003

14.

Dominelli

(2021). A green social work perspective on social work during the time of COVID-19. International Journal of Social Welfare, 30(1), 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsw.12469

15.

Enjuto Martinez

Howell

(2022). Effects of government contracting of services on NGOs in China: Convergence and divergence with international experience. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 33(4), 685–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-021-00383-1

16.

European Commission. (2001, June 20). Employment and social policies: A framework for investing in quality [Commission Communication COM(2001) 313 final]. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:52001DC0313

17.

European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. (2002, February). Quality of work and employment in Europe: Issues and challenges [Foundation paper No. 1]. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/en/publications/2002/quality-work-and-employment-europe-issues-and-challenges-foundation-paper-no-1

18.

Fan

Y. N.

(2013). Opportunities and challenges faced by social work professional institutions in the context of the “dual subject” policy for government procurement of public services, Social Work, 5, 14–20, 150–151. https://kns.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFQ&dbname=CJFD2013&filename=SHGO201305004. (in Chinese)

19.

Chen

Cao

(2022). Resilience, perceived social support and professional quality of life among medical social workers during COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China: A cross-sectional survey. Social Work in Health Care, 61(4), 261–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/00981389.2022.2101582

20.

Gal

Weiss-Gal

(2011). Social policy formulation and the role of professionals: The involvement of social workers in parliamentary committees in Israel. Health & Social Care in the Community, 19(2), 158–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2524.2010.00955.x

21.

Geisler

Berthelsen

Muhonen

(2019). Retaining social workers: The role of quality of work and psychosocial safety climate for work engagement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Human Service Organizations: Management, Leadership & Governance, 43(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/23303131.2019.1569574

22.

X. S.

Liu

Lian

Wang

T. Q.

(2025). China Social work longitudinal survey (CSWLS 2022): Tracking, implementation, and data description . Journal of East China University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition), 40(3), 24–43. https://kns.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFQ&dbname=CJFDLAST2025&filename=HDLS202503003. (in Chinese)

23.

Holmes

M. R.

Rentrope

C. R.

Korsch-Williams

King

J. A.

(2021). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on posttraumatic stress, grief, burnout, and secondary trauma of social workers in the United States. Clinical Social Work Journal, 49(4), 495–504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-021-00795-y

24.

Hsu

Hasmath

(2014). The local corporatist state and NGO relations in China. Journal of Contemporary China, 23, 516–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2013.843929

25.

Huang

Luo

Sun

(2024). Why is the turnover intention in large institutions higher? Perceived organizational support, organizational cultural identity, and turnover intention of Chinese social workers. Social Work Research, 48(4), 240–252. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svae022

26.

Huang

(2015). The institutional environment and development of contemporary social organizations in China. Chinese Social Sciences, 9, 146–164, 206–207. https://kns.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFQ&dbname=CJFDLAST2016&filename=ZSHK201509008. (in Chinese)

27.

Johnson

A. F.

Rauhaus

B. M.

Webb-Farley

(2020). The COVID-19 pandemic: A challenge for US nonprofits’ financial stability. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 33(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBAFM-06-2020-0076

28.

Kim

Kao

(2014). A meta-analysis of turnover intention predictors among U.S. child welfare workers. Children and Youth Services Review, 47, 214–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.09.015

29.

Kourgiantakis

Lee

(2020). Social work practice education and training during the pandemic: Disruptions and discoveries. International Social Work, 63(6), 761–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872820959706

30.

Kurtessis

J. N.

Eisenberger

Ford

M. T.

Buffardi

L. C.

Stewart

K. A.

Adis

C. S.

(2017). Perceived organizational support: A meta-analytic evaluation of organizational support theory. Journal of Management, 43(6), 1854–1884. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206315575554

31.

Leschke

Watt

(2014). Challenges in constructing a multi-dimensional European job quality index. Social Indicators Research, 118(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0405-9

32.

Mack

B. M.

(2022). Addressing social workers’ stress, burnout, and resiliency: A qualitative study with supervisors. Social Work Research, 46(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svab032

33.

Mao

(2023). The distortion of public–private partnerships in China: An institutional perspective of central–local government relations. Administration & Society, 55(4), 752–776. https://doi.org/10.1177/00953997231158343

34.

Martínez-López

J. Á.

Lázaro-Pérez

Gómez-Galán

(2021). Predictors of burnout in social workers: The COVID-19 pandemic as a scenario for analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(10), 5416. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105416

35.

McCoyd

J. L.

Curran

Candelario

Findley

P. A.

Hennessey

(2023). Social service providers under COVID-19 duress: Adaptation, burnout, and resilience. Journal of Social Work (London, England), 23(1), 85–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/14680173221109414

36.

Mills

Ramachenderan

Chapman

Greenland

Agar

(2020). Prioritising workforce wellbeing and resilience: What COVID-19 is reminding us about self-care and staff support. Palliative Medicine, 34(9), 1137–1139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269216320947966

37.

Zhan

(2017). Embedded government control and nonprofit revenue growth. Public Administration Review, 77(5), 730–742. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12716

38.

Nicholas

D. B.

Samson

Hilsen

McFarlane

(2023). Examining the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on social work in health care. Journal of Social Work (London, England), 23(2), 334–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/14680173221142767

39.

Nissly

J. A.

Barak

M. E. M.

Levin

(2005). Stress, social support, and workers’ intentions to leave their jobs in public child welfare. Administration in Social Work, 29(1), 79–100. https://doi.org/10.1300/J147v29n01_06

40.

People’s Daily Online. (2020, May 8). Summary of national emergency response levels: Five provinces at level II, 24 regions downgraded to level III. http://society.people.com.cn/n1/2020/0508/c1008-31701312.html

41.

Pfeffer

Salancik

G. R.

(2003). The external control of organizations: A resource dependence perspective. Stanford University Press.

42.

(2022). Effect of hukou status on job switchingand employment outcomes. Economic and Management Review, 38(2), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.13962/j.cnki.37-1486/f.2022.02.001. (in Chinese)

43.

Ravalier

McFadden

Gillen

Mallett

Nicholl

Neill

Manthorpe

Moriarty

Schroder

Curry

(2023). Working conditions and well-being in UK social care and social work during COVID-19. Journal of Social Work (London, England), 23(2), 165–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/14680173221109483

44.

Redondo-Sama

Matulic

Munté-Pascual

de Vicente

(2020). Social work during the COVID-19 crisis: Responding to urgent social needs. Sustainability, 12(20), 8595. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12208595

45.

Schweitzer

Chianello

Kothari

(2013). Compensation in social work: Critical for satisfaction and a sustainable profession. Administration in Social Work, 37(2), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/03643107.2012.669335

46.

Tang

Fei

M. P.

(2020). Salary incentives or emotional support? Exploring the causes of social worker turnover. Youth Studies, 2, 59–69, 95–96. https://kns.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFQ&dbname=CJFDLAST2020&filename=QNYJ202002006. (in Chinese)

47.

(2021). Understanding the role of nonprofit organizations in the provision of social services in China: An exploratory study. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 32(4), 767–779. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-021-00375-1

48.

Van Aerden

Puig-Barrachina

Bosmans

Vanroelen

(2016). How does employment quality relate to health and job satisfaction in Europe? A typological approach. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 158, 132–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.04.017

49.

Wang

Liu

(2022). What did Chinese social workers do at the worst moment? A research based on social workers’ participation in the fight against COVID-19 at Guangzhou. Social Work in Public Health, 37(6), 548–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2022.2053633

50.

Wang

S. B.

(2011). The embedded development of social work in China. Social Science Front, 2, 206–222. https://kns.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFQ&dbname=CJFD2011&filename=SHZX201102032. (in Chinese)

51.

Wang

Jiang

Zhang

Liu

(2021). Organizational justice, burnout, and turnover intention of social workers in China. Journal of Social Work, 21(3), 456–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017320911347

52.

Xie

Z. Y.

(2016). Development strategies of social work organizations in the context of resource dependence. Theory Monthly, 10, 153–159. https://doi.org/10.14180/j.cnki.1004-0544.2016.10.028. (in Chinese)

53.

Yang

Song

Chen

Zhang

(2025). External environment and internal construction: A flexible human resources acquisition model for Chinese social work organizations. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 0(0), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/29949769.2025.2472796

54.

Yang

Zhang

(2022). Employment qualitydifferences between migrant and local populations: Status, sources, and Causes.Journal of Financial Research, 48(4), 19–33. https://doi.org/10.16538/j.cnki.jfe.20211218.401. (in Chinese)

55.

Yang

Xue

(2019). Social organization participation, government governance and the equalization of basic public services: Evidence from China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(16), 2996. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162996

56.

Yuan

Liu

Sun

(2021). Baseline survey of China social work longitudinal study 2019: Design and implementation. Research on Social Work Practice, 31(5), 513–519. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731520984536

57.

Zhao

Cao

Zhang

(2025). Offering security or incentives: The relationship among sector type, organizational support, and turnover intentions of social workers in China. The British Journal of Social Work, 55(3), 1275–1295. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcae192

Organization–Government Ties and Social Worker Employment Quality During COVID-19 Controls in China

Abstract

Purpose

Method

Results

Conclusion

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References