Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

This study evaluated the feasibility and preliminary outcomes of implementing Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation (STAIR), a trauma-informed intervention, in a southeastern U.S. county jail. Over 15 months, 81 participants were randomized to receive 12 STAIR sessions during incarceration or split between jail and community. Pre- and postintervention data were analyzed for 38 participants. Statistically significant reductions in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; p = .002), depression (p = .018), and anxiety (p = .021) were observed, with small to moderate effect sizes. Improvements in coping self-efficacy and emotion regulation were noted but not statistically significant. Qualitative analysis of 37 interviews identified themes such as having time and space to participate, the importance of facilitators, and understanding the material. Barriers included community attrition and the need for population-specific materials. Despite threats to internal validity, findings support the feasibility of trauma-informed programming in jails and suggest implications for correctional and reentry-focused social work practice.

Keywords

trauma-informed care incarceration jail-based intervention PTSD intervention research

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adams

Z. W.

Moreland

Cohen

J. R.

Lee

R. C.

Hanson

R. F.

Danielson

C. K.

Self-Brown

Briggs

E. C.

(2016). Polyvictimization: Latent profiles and mental health outcomes in a clinical sample of adolescents. Psychology of Violence, 6(1), 145–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605241260602

Ardino

(2012). Offending behaviour: The role of trauma and PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 3(s1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v3i0.18968@zept20.2012.3.issue-s1

Bengtson

Aubuchon-Endsley

Meotti

Lynch

(2024). Trauma History Questionnaire: Validation with novel samples of incarcerated women and perinatal women. Women & Health, 64(5), 380–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2024.2344503

Benight

C. C.

Bandura

(2004). Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: The role of perceived self-efficacy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(10), 1129–1148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2003.08.008

Blevins

C. A.

Weathers

F. W.

Davis

M. T.

Witte

T. K.

Domino

J. L.

(2015). The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059

Boland

Rock

Johnson

A. K.

Jones

M. A.

Salekin

R. T.

Anderson

J. L.

(2021). Pathways to incarceration: An examination of childhood maltreatment and personality psychopathology in incarcerated adults. Psychology, Crime & Law, 27(3), 253–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2020.1798426

Bureau of Justice Statistics . (2024). Preliminary data release – Jails (2023). bjs.ojp.gov: http://bjs.ojp.gov/preliminary-data-reelase-jails-2023

Burke

Ellis

J. D.

Peltier

M. R.

Roberts

Verplaetse

T. L.

Phillips

Moore

K. E.

Marotta

P. L.

McKee

S. A.

(2023). Adverse childhood experiences and pathways to violent behavior for women and men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(3–4), 4034–4060. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221113012

Chesney

M. A.

Neilands

T. B.

Chambers

D. B.

Taylor

J. M.

Folkman

(2006). A validity and reliability study of the coping self-efficacy scale. British Journal of Health Psychology, 11(Pt 3), 421–437. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910705X53155

10.

Chesney-Lind

Shelden

R. G.

(2013). Girls, delinquency, and juvenile justice. John Wiley & Sons.

11.

Cieslak

Benight

C. C.

Lehman

V. C.

(2008). Coping self-efficacy mediates the effects of negative cognitions on posttraumatic distress. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(7), 788–798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.03.007

12.

Cloitre

Koenen

K. C.

Cohen

L. R.

Han

(2002). Skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation followed by exposure: A phase-based treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(5), 1067–1074. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.70.5.1067

13.

Cloitre

Petkova

Wang

Lu Lassell

(2012). An examination of the influence of a sequential treatment on the course and impact of dissociation among women with PTSD related to childhood abuse. Depression and Anxiety, 29(8), 709–717. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.21920

14.

Cloitre

Stovall-McClough

K. C.

Nooner

Zorbas

Cherry

Jackson

C. L.

Gan

Petkova

(2010). Treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(8), 915–924. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09081247

15.

Cohen

(1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Academic Press.

16.

Crisanti

A. S.

Case

B. F.

Isakson

B. L.

Steadman

H. J.

(2014). Understanding study attrition in the evaluation of jail diversion programs for persons with serious mental illness or co-occurring substance use disorders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 41(6), 772–790. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854813514580

17.

Dehart

D. D,

(2008). Pathways to prison: Impact of victimization in the lives of incarcerated women. Violence Against Women, 14(12), 1362–1381. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208327018

18.

Fazel

Baillargeon

(2011). The health of prisoners. The Lancet, 377(9769), 956–965. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61053-7

19.

Fitzgerald

J. M.

DiGangi

J. A.

Phan

K. L.

(2018). Functional neuroanatomy of emotion and its regulation in PTSD. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 26(3), 116–128. https://doi.org/10.1097/hrp.0000000000000185

20.

Flatt

J. D.

Williams

B. A.

Barnes

Goldenson

Ahalt

(2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and associated health and social vulnerabilities in older jail inmates. Aging & Mental Health, 21(10), 1106–1112. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2016.1201042

21.

Goh

K. K.

M. L.

Jou

(2021). Childhood trauma and aggression in persons convicted for homicide: An exploratory study examines the role of plasma oxytocin. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.719282

22.

Gratz

K. L.

Roemer

(2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94

23.

Green

B. L.

(1996). Trauma History Questionnaire. In Stamm

B. H.

(Ed.), Measurement of stress, trauma, and adaptation (pp. 366–369). Sidran Press.

24.

Grella

C. E.

Ostlie

Watson

D. P.

Scott

C. K.

Carnevale

Dennis

M. L.

(2022). Scoping review of interventions to link individuals to substance use services at discharge from jail. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 138, Article 108718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108718

25.

Gudiño

O. G.

Leonard

Cloitre

(2016). STAIR-A for girls: A pilot study of a skills-based group for traumatized youth in an urban school setting. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 9, 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-015-0061-0

26.

Gudiño

O. G.

Weis

J. R.

Havens

J. F.

Biggs

E. A.

Diamond

U. N.

Marr

Jackson

Cloitre

(2014). Group trauma-informed treatment for adolescent psychiatric inpatients: A preliminary uncontrolled trial. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27(4), 496–500. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21928

27.

Hooper

L. M.

Stockton

Krupnick

J. L.

Green

B. L.

(2011). Development, use, and psychometric properties of the Trauma History Questionnaire. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 16(3), 258–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2011.572035

28.

Kao

J. C.

Chuong

Reddy

M. K.

Gobin

R. L.

Zlotnick

Johnson

J. E.

(2014). Associations between past trauma, current social support, and loneliness in incarcerated populations. Health & Justice, 2(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/2194-7899-2-7

29.

Lincoln

Kennedy

Tuthill

Roberts

Conklin

T. J.

Hammett

T. M.

(2006). Facilitators and barriers to continuing healthcare after jail: A community-integrated program. Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 29(1), 2–16. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004479-200601000-00002

30.

Magalhães

Grych

Ferreira

Antunes

Prioste

Jongenelen

(2022). Interpersonal violence and mental health outcomes: Mediation by self-efficacy and coping. Victims & Offenders, 17(2), 182–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2021.1880508

31.

Marusak

H. A.

Martin

K. R.

Etkin

Thomason

M. E.

(2015). Childhood trauma exposure disrupts the automatic regulation of emotional processing. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(5), 1250–1258. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.311

32.

Morison

Benight

C. C.

(2022). Trauma coping self-efficacy mediates associations between adult attachment and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 799608. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.799608

33.

Naeem

Ozuem

Howell

Ranfagni

(2023). A step-by-step process of thematic analysis to develop a conceptual model in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 22, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231205789

34.

National Institute of Mental Health . (2023). Post-traumatic stress disorder. National Institute of Mental Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

35.

Orozco-Cabal

Rodríguez

Herin

D. V.

Gempeler

Uribe

(2010). Validity and reliability of the abbreviated Barratt Impulsiveness Scale in Spanish (BIS-15S). Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatria, 39(1), 93–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0034-7450(14)60239-0

36.

Padmanabhanunni

Pretorius

T. B.

(2023). Cognitive adaptation to stress and trauma: The role of self-appraised problem-solving in posttraumatic stress disorder. Chronic Stress, 7, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/24705470231189980

37.

Patton

J. H.

Stanford

M. S.

Barratt

E. S.

(1995). Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51(6), 768–774. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199511)51:6<768::AID-JCLP2270510607>3.0.CO;2-1

38.

Rasche

Dudeck

Otte

Klingner

Vasic

Streb

(2016). Factors influencing the pathway from trauma to aggression: A current review of behavioral studies. Neurology, Psychiatry and Brain Research, 22(2), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npbr.2016.01.009

39.

Roberton

Daffern

Bucks

R. S.

(2012). Emotion regulation and aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2011.09.006

40.

Samuelson

K. W.

Bartel

Valadez

Jordan

J. T.

(2017). PTSD symptoms and perception of cognitive problems: The roles of posttraumatic cognitions and trauma coping self-efficacy. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(5), 537–544. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000210

41.

Sheehan

D. V.

Lecrubier

Harnett-Sheehan

Janavs

Weiller

Bonara

L. I.

Keskiner

Schinka

Knapp

Sheehan

M. F.

Dunbar

G. C.

(1997). Reliability and validity of the MINI International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): According to the SCID-P. European Psychiatry, 12(5), 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-9338(97)83297-X

42.

Stanford

M. S.

Mathias

C. W.

Dougherty

D. M.

Lake

S. L.

Anderson

N. E.

Patton

J. H.

(2009). Fifty years of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale: An update and review. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(5), 385–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.04.008

43.

Sullivan

K. S.

Ancharski

Wortham

Okosi

Kaplan

Urquiza

Timmer

Cloitre

Chemtob

Lindsey

M. A.

(2023). Feasibility and preliminary impact of a community-based intervention for maternal PTSD and parenting: Parenting-STAIR Pilot. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 32, 481–497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-023-02534-y

44.

Sutker

P. B.

Vasterling

J. J.

Brailey

Allain

A. N.

Jr. (1995). Memory, attention, and executive deficits in POW survivors: Contributing biological and psychological factors. Neuropsychology, 9(1), 118–125. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.9.1.118

45.

Trappler

Newville

(2007). Trauma healing via cognitive behavior therapy in chronically hospitalized patients. Psychiatric Quarterly, 78(4), 317–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-007-9049-8

46.

Tripodi

S. J.

Curley

Ross

(2020). Traumatic experiences before incarceration in a county jail. Institute for Justice Research and Development, Florida State University. https://ijrd.csw.fsu.edu/sites/g/files/upcbnu1766/files/Publications/Traumatic_exp_before_incar_county_jail.pdf

47.

Tripodi

S. J.

Killian

M. O.

Gilmour

Curley

Herod

(2022). Trauma-informed care groups with incarcerated women: An alternative treatment design comparing seeking safety and STAIR. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 13(3), 511–531. https://doi.org/10.1086/712732

48.

Tripodi

S. J.

Pettus-Davis

(2013). Histories of childhood victimization and subsequent mental health problems, substance use, and sexual victimization for a sample of incarcerated women in the US. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 36(1), 30–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2012.11.005

49.

Tripodi

S. J.

Pettus-Davis

Bender

Fitzgerald

Renn

Kennedy

(2019). Pathways to recidivism for women released from prison: A mediated model of abuse, mental health issues, and substance use. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46(9), 1219–1236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854819867119

50.

Tuente

S. K.

Bogaerts

Veling

(2019). Hostile attribution bias and aggression in adults - A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 46, 66–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.009

51.

Visted

Vøllestad

Nielsen

M. B.

Schanche

(2018). Emotion regulation in current and remitted depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 756. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00756

52.

Weber

Lynch

(2024). Interpersonal violence, emotion regulation, and trauma-coping self-efficacy as predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder, substance use, and risk engagement among women in jail. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605241307227

53.

Webster

G. D.

Dewall

C. N.

Pond

R. S.

Deckman

Jonanson

P. K.

B. M.

Nichols

A. L.

Schember

T. O.

Crysel

L. C.

Crosier

B. S.

Smith

C. V.

Paddock

E. L.

Nezlek

J. B.

Kirkpatrick

L. A.

Bryan

A. D.

Bator

R. J.

(2014). The Brief Aggression Questionnaire: Psychometric and behavioral evidence. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96(5), 531–543. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/ab.21507

54.

Wolff

Shi

(2012). Childhood and adult trauma experiences of incarcerated persons and their relationship to adult behavioral health problems and treatment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 9(5), 1908–1926. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9051908

55.

Yates

T. M.

(2004). The developmental psychopathology of self-injurious behavior: Compensatory regulation in posttraumatic adaptation. Clinical Psychology Review, 24(1), 35–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2003.10.001

56.

Zhan

Zhang

Gong

Geng

(2024). Clinical correlates of irritability, anger, hostility, and aggression in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 16(6), 1055–1062. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001498

Implementing a Trauma-Informed Intervention in a County Jail: Feasibility Study of STAIR

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References