This article reviews best practices for young children’s music experiences in light of developments in brain research. The first section reviews research music and brain topics including neuromyths, effect of music on structural brain changes and general intelligence, plasticity, critical and optimal periods, and at-risk student populations. The second section applies brain research to development and instructional strategies in the elementary music classroom.
Abbott, A. ( 2009). Brain imaging skewed. Nature, 458, 1087.
2.
Bengtsson, S., Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Ullen, F. ( 2007). Cortical regions involved in the generation of musical structures during improvisation in pianists. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19(13), 830-842.
3.
Bjørkvold, J.R. ( 1992). The muse within: Creativity and communication, song and play from childhood through maturity. New York : Harper Collins.
4.
Caine, R.N., & Caine, G. ( 1994). Making connections: Teaching the human brain. New York: Addison-Wesley.
5.
Catterall, J.S., & Rauscher, F. ( 2008). Unpacking the impact of music on intelligence . In W. Gruhn & F. Rauscher (Eds.), Neurosciences in music pedagogy (pp. 169-198). Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
6.
Deasy, R. (Ed.). (2002). Critical links: Learning in the arts and student academic and social development . Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership.
7.
Doidge, N. ( 2007). The brain that changes itself. New York: Viking-Penguin.
8.
Elbert, T., Pantev, C., Wienbruch, C., Rockstrub, B., & Taub, E. ( 1995). Increased cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Science, 270(5234), 305-307.
9.
Flavell, R. ( 1981). Social cognitive development. Cambridge , England: Cambridge University Press.
10.
Flohr, J.W. ( 2004). Musical lives of young children. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
11.
Flohr, J.W., & Hodges, D. ( 2006). Music and neuroscience. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of Musical Cognition and Development (pp. 3-39). New York: Oxford University Press.
12.
Flohr, J.W., & Trevarthen, C. (2008). Music learning in childhood-Early developments of a musical brain and body. In W. Gruhn, & F. Rauscher (Eds.), Neurosciences in music pedagogy (pp. 53-99). Hauppage, NY : Nova Science Publishers.
13.
Flohr, J.W., & Trollinger, V. (2010). Music in elementary education . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
14.
Gallese, V. ( 2003). The roots of empathy: The shared manifold hypothesis and the neural basis of intersubjectivity. Psychopatology , 36(4), 171-180.
15.
Gaser, C., & Schlaug, G. ( 2003). Brain structures differ between musicians and non-musicians . The Journal of Neuroscience, 23(27), 9240-9245.
16.
Glaser, D. (n.d.) Daniel Glaser’s latest study with ballet and capoeira dancers . Retrieved August 5, 2009, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3204/01-resup.html .
17.
Goswami, U. ( 2006). Neuroscience and education: From research to practice ? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 406-413.
18.
Haier, R., & Jung, R. ( 2008). Brain imaging of intelligence and creativity: What is the picture for education? Roeper Review, 30(20), 22-52.
19.
Hall, J. ( 2006). Neuroscience and education. Education Journal, 84(3), 27-29.
20.
Hetland, L. ( 2000). Listening to music enhances spatial-temporal reasoning: Evidence for the "Mozart effect." Journal of Aesthetic Education , 34(3-4), 105-148.
21.
Hubel, D.H., & Wiesel, T.N. ( 1970). The period of susceptibility to the physiological effects of unilateral eye closure in kittens. Journal of Physiology , 206, 419-436.
22.
Jensen, E. ( 2003). Tools for engagement: Managing emotional states for learner success. Bakersfield, CA: Corwin Press.
Jossey-Bass (Ed.). (2008). The Jossey-bass reader on the brain and learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishing.
25.
Lee, D.N. ( 2005). Tau in action in development. In J. J. Rieser, J. J. Lockman & C. A. Nelson (Eds.), Action as an organizer of learning and development (pp. 3-50). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
26.
Lingnau, A., Gesierich, B., & Caramazza, A. ( 2009). Asymmetric fMRI adaptation reveals no evidence for mirror neurons in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(24), 9925-9930.
27.
Moorehead, G.E., & Pond, D. ( 1978). Music of young children. Santa Barbara, CA: Pillsbury Foundation for Advancement of Music Education .
28.
Norton, A., Winner, E., Cronin, K., Overy, K., Lee, D.J., & Schalug, G. ( 2005). Are there pre-existing neural, cognitive, or motoric markers for musical ability?Brain Cognition, 59(2), 124-134.
29.
Rauscher, F.H., Shaw, G.L., & Ky, K.N. ( 1993). Music and spatial task performance. Nature, 365, 611.
30.
Respress, T., & Lutfi, G. ( 2006). Whole brain learning: The fine arts with students at risk. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 15(7), 24-31.
31.
Schellenberg, E.G. ( 2005). Music and cognitive abilities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 322-325.
32.
Schellenberg, E.G. ( 2004). Music lessons enhance IQ. Psychological Science, 15, 511-514.
33.
Schilbach, L., Wohlschläger, A.M., Newen, A., Krämer, N., Shah, N., Fink, G.R., & Vogeley, K. ( 2006). Being with others: Neural correlates of social interaction . Neuropsychologia, 44(5), 718-730.
34.
Schlaug, G., Jänke, L., Huang, Y., Staiger, J.F., & Steinmetz, H. ( 1995). Increased corpus callosum size in musicians. Neuropsychologia, 33(8), 1047-1055.
35.
Sloboda, J., & Davidson, J. ( 1996). The young performing musician. In I. Deliège, & J. Sloboda (Eds.), Musical beginnings: Origins and development of musical competence (pp. 171-190). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
36.
Smith, N.J., & Lounsbery, M. ( 2009). Promoting physical education: The link to academic achievement . Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 80(1), 39-43.
37.
Snowdon, D.A. ( 1997). Aging and Alzheimer’s disease: Lessons from the nun study. Gerontologist, 37(2), 150-156.
38.
Steen, R. ( 2007). The evolving brain: The known and the unknown . Amhurst, NY: Promethus Books .
39.
Stronge, J.H. ( 2007). Qualities of effective teachers (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
40.
Thulborn, K.R., Carpenter, P.A., & Just, M.A. ( 1999). Plasticity of language-related brain function during recovery from stroke. Stroke, 30(4), 749-754.
41.
Tollinger, V.L. ( 2010). The brain in singing and language. General Music Today, 23(2), ADD PAGE NUMBERS.
42.
Vul, E., Harris, C., Winkielman, P., & Pashler, H. ( 2009). Puzzlingly high correlations in fMRI studies of emotion, personality, and social cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(3), 274-290.