The authors undertook a scoping review to assess the literature from 2002 to 2017 on the relationship between occupation and female breast cancer. Case–control, cohort, and meta-analytic studies suggest that women working as flight attendants, in medical professions, some production positions, sales and retail, and scientific technical staff are likely to have elevated risk of breast cancer. In addition, occupational exposures to night-shift work, ionizing radiation, some chemicals, job stress, and sedentary work may increase risk of breast cancer. Occupational physical activity appears to decrease risk. Workplace exposures to passive smoke and occupational exposure to nonionizing radiation do not appear to affect breast cancer risk. Some studies of occupational categories and workplace exposures indicate that risk may be modified by duration of exposure, timing of exposure, dose, hormone-receptor subtypes, and menopausal status at diagnosis. The compelling data from this review reveal a substantial need for further research on occupation and breast cancer.
American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures: 2018. Report for the American Cancer Society, Surveillance Research, 2018.
2.
American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures – Table 1. Estimated Number* of New Cancer Cases and Deaths by Sex, US, 2018. Report for the American Cancer Society, Surveillance Research, 2018.
3.
AlizartMSaunusJCummingsMet al.
Molecular classification of breast carcinoma. Diagn Histopathol (Oxf)2012;
18: 97–103.
4.
TurkozFPSolakMPetekkayaIet al.
Association between common risk factors and molecular subtypes in breast cancer patients. Breast2013;
22: 344–350.
5.
AmendKHicksDAmbrosoneCB.Breast cancer in African-American women: differences in tumor biology from European-American women. Cancer Res2006;
66: 8327–8330.
6.
HowladerNAltekruseSFLiCIet al.
US incidence of breast cancer subtypes defined by joint hormone receptor and HER2 status. J Natl Cancer Inst2014;
106: pii: dju055.
7.
WirthMVenaJESmithEKet al.
The epidemiology of cancer among police officers. Am J Ind Med2013;
56: 439–453.
8.
MaFFlemingLELeeDJet al.
Mortality in Florida professional firefighters, 1972 to 1999. Am J Ind Med2005;
47: 509–517.
9.
RuckartPZBoveFJShanleyEet al.
Evaluation of contaminated drinking water and male breast cancer at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina: a case control study. Environ Health2015;
14: 74.
10.
VilleneuveSCyrDLyngeEet al.Occupation and occupational exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals in male breast cancer: a case–control study in Europe. Occup Environ Med2010;
67: 837–844.
Byars-WinstonAFouadNWenY.Race/ethnicity and sex in U.S. occupations, 1970-2010: Implications for research, practice, and policy. J Vocat Behav2015;
87: 54–70.
13.
LippaRAPrestonKPennerJ.Women's Representation in 60 occupations from 1972 to 2010: more women in high-status jobs, few women in things-oriented jobs. PloS One2014;
9: e95960
14.
InfantePF.Cancer and blue-collar workers: who cares?New Solut1995;
5: 52–57.
15.
HohenadelKRajPDemersPAet al.
The inclusion of women in studies of occupational cancer: a review of the epidemiologic literature from 1991–2009. Am J Ind Med2015;
58: 276–281.
16.
HeCAnandSTEbellMHet al.
Circadian disrupting exposures and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Int Arch Occup Environ Health2015;
88: 533–547.
17.
AllenJGStapletonHMVallarinoJet al.
Exposure to flame retardant chemicals on commercial airplanes. Environ Health2013;
12: 17.
18.
GoodsonWHLoweLCarpenterDOet al.Assessing the carcinogenic potential of low-dose exposures to chemical mixtures in the environment: the challenge ahead. Carcinogenesis2015;
36(Suppl 1): S254–S296.
19.
ArkseyHO'MalleyL.Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int J Soc Res Methodol2005;
8: 19–32.
20.
ArmstrongRHallBJDoyleJet al.
Scoping the scope’ of a Cochrane review. J Public Health (Oxf)2011;
33: 147–150.
21.
LevacDColquhounHO'BrienKK.Scoping studies: advancing the methodology. Implement Sci2010;
5: 69
22.
PetersMDGodfreyCMKhalilHet al.
Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews. Int J Evid Based Healthc2015;
13: 141–146.
Breast Cancer Fund. Working women and breast cancer: the state of the evidence, https://www.bcpp.org/science-policy/ (2017, accessed 5 June 2017).
25.
US Department of Labor. Standard occupational categories, https://www.bls.gov/soc/ (2010, accessed 27 April 2017).
26.
MillsPKYangR.Breast cancer risk in Hispanic agricultural workers in California. Int J Occup Environ Health2005;
11: 123–131.
27.
GardnerKMShuXOJinFet al.
Occupations and breast cancer risk among Chinese women in urban Shanghai. Am J Ind Med2002;
42: 296–308.
28.
BrophyJTKeithMMWattersonAet al.
Breast cancer risk in relation to occupations with exposure to carcinogens and endocrine disruptors: A Canadian case-control study. Environ Health2012;
11: 87
29.
BernsteinLAllenMAnton-CulverHet al.
High breast cancer incidence rates among California teachers: Results from the California Teachers Study (United States). Cancer Causes Control2002;
13: 625–635.
30.
TeitelbaumSLBrittonJAGammonMDet al.
Occupation and breast cancer in women 20-44 years of age (United States). Cancer Causes Control2003;
14: 627–637.
31.
LiuTZhangCLiuC.The incidence of breast cancer among female flight attendants: an updated meta-analysis. J Travel Med2016;
23: 1–7.
32.
RafnssonVSulemPTuliniusHet al.
Breast cancer risk in airline cabin attendants: a nested case-control study in Iceland. Occup Environ Med2003;
60: 807–809.
33.
Schubauer-BeriganMKAndersonJLet al.
Breast cancer incidence in a cohort of U.S. flight attendants. Am J Ind Med2015;
58: 252–266.
34.
ReynoldsPConeJLayefskyMet al.
Cancer incidence in California flight attendants (United States). Cancer Causes Control2002;
13: 317–324.
35.
KjaerTKHansenJ.Cancer incidence among large cohort of female Danish registered nurses. Scand J Work Environ Health2009;
35: 446–453.
36.
LieJ-ASAndersenAKjaerheimK.Cancer risk among 43000 Norwegian nurses. Scand J Work Environ Health2007;
33: 66–73.
37.
SantiSAMeigsMLZhaoYet al.
A case-control study of breast cancer risk in nurses from Northeastern Ontario, Canada. Cancer Causes Control2015;
26: 1421–1428.
38.
ChouLBChandranSHarrisAHSet al.
Increased breast cancer prevalence among female orthopedic surgeons. J Womens Health2012;
21: 683–689.
39.
InnosKRahuKBaburinAet al.
Cancer incidence and cause-specific mortality in male and female physicians: a cohort study in Estonia. Scand J Public Health2002;
30: 133–140.
40.
JiB-TBlairAShuX-Oet al.
Occupation and breast cancer risk among Shanghai women in a population-based cohort study. Am J Ind Med2008;
51: 100–110.
41.
DoodyMMFreedmanDMAlexanderBHet al.
Breast cancer incidence in U.S. radiologic technologists. Cancer2006;
106: 2707–2715.
42.
ShahamJGurvichRGoralAet al.
The risk of breast cancer in relation to health habits and occupational exposures. Am J Ind Med2006;
49: 1021–1030.
43.
EkpanyaskulCKhuhapremaTWiangnonSet al.
Case-control study of occupational categories and breast cancer risk in Thailand. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev2010;
11: 793–797.
44.
PeplonskaBStewartPSzeszenia-DabrowskaNet al.
Occupation and breast cancer risk in Polish women: A population-based case-control study. Am J Ind Med2007;
50: 97–111.
45.
KuzmickieneIDidziapetrisRStukonisM.Cancer incidence in the workers cohort of textile manufacturing factory in Alytus, Lithuania. J Occup Environ Med2004;
46: 147–153.
46.
VilleneuveSFévotteJAngerAet al.
Breast cancer risk by occupation and industry: Analysis of the CECILE study, a population-based case-control study in France. Am J Ind Med2011;
54: 499–509.
47.
ShahamJGurvichRKneshetY.Cancer incidence among laboratory workers in biomedical research and routine laboratories in Israel: Part I-the cohort study. Am J Ind Med2003;
44: 600–610.
48.
TakkoucheBRegueiraMCMontesMA.Risk of cancer among hairdressers and related workers: a meta-analysis. Int J Epidemiol2009;
38: 1512–1531.
49.
QuachTDoan-BillingPALayefskyMet al.
Cancer incidence in female cosmetologists and manicurists in California, 1988–2005. Am J Epidemiol2010;
172: 691–699.
50.
IARC. Agents classified by the IARC monographs. Vols 1–120. Report, January 2018. Lyon, France: IARC.
51.
SlackRYoungCRushtonL.Occupational cancer in Britain. Br J Cancer2012;
107: S49–S55.
52.
PurdueMPHutchingsSJRushtonLet al.
The proportion of cancer attributable to occupational exposures. Ann Epidemiol2015;
25: 188–192.
53.
IjazSVerbeekJSeidlerAet al.
Night-shift work and breast cancer – A systematic review and meta-analysis. Scand J Work Environ Health2013;
39: 431–447.
54.
KamdarBBTergasAIMateenFJet al.
Night-shift work and risk of breast cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat2013;
138: 291–301.
55.
WangFYeungKLChanWCet al.
A meta-analysis on dose-response relationship between night shift work and the risk of breast cancer. Ann Oncol2013;
24: 2724–2732.
56.
LinXChenWWeiFet al.
Night-shift work increases morbidity of breast cancer and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis of 16 prospective cohort studies. Sleep Med2015;
16: 1381–1387.
57.
JiaYLuYWuKet al.
Does night work increase the risk of breast cancer? A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Cancer Epidemiol2013;
37: 197–206.
58.
MenegauxFTruongTAngerAet al.
Night work and breast cancer: a population‐based case–control study in France (the CECILE study). Int J Cancer2013;
132: 924–931.
59.
LieJAKjuusHZienolddinySet al.
Night work and breast cancer risk among Norwegian nurses: assessment by different exposure metrics. Am J Epidemiol2011;
173: 1272–1279.
60.
GrundyARichardsonHBurstynIet al.
Increased risk of breast cancer associated with long-term shift work in Canada. Occup Environ Med2013;
70: 831–838.
61.
HansenJLassenCF.Nested case-control study of night shift work and breast cancer risk among women in the Danish military. Occup Environ Med2012;
69: 551–556.
62.
RabsteinSHarthVPeschBet al.
Night work and breast cancer estrogen receptor status–results from the German GENICA study. Scand J Work Environ Health2013;
39: 448–455.
63.
SchernhammerESKroenkeCHLadenFet al.
Night work and risk of breast cancer. Epidemiology2006;
17: 108–111.
64.
FritschiLErrenTCGlassDCet al.
The association between different night shiftwork factors and breast cancer: A case-control study. Br J Cancer2013;
109: 2472–2480.
65.
MegdalSPKroenkeCHLadenFet al.
Night work and breast cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer2005;
41: 2023–2032.
66.
LieJ-ASKjuusHZienolddinySet al.
Breast cancer among nurses: is the intensity of night work related to hormone receptor status?Am J Epidemiol2013;
178: 110–117.
67.
Cordina-DuvergerEKoudouYTruongTet al.
Night work and breast cancer risk defined by human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) and hormone receptor status: A population-based case-control study in France. Chronobiol Int2016;
33: 783–787.
68.
PapantoniouKCastaño-VinyalsGEspinosaAet al.
Breast cancer risk and night shift work in a case–control study in a Spanish population. Eur J Epidemiol2016;
31: 867–878.
69.
GrundyATranmerJRichardsonHet al.
The influence of light at night exposure on melatonin levels among Canadian rotating shift nurses. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev2011;
20: 2404–2412.
70.
LangleyARGrahamCHGrundyALet al.
A cross-sectional study of breast cancer biomarkers among shift working nurses. BMJ Open2012;
2: e000532
71.
DavisSMirickDKChenCet al.
Night shift work and hormone levels in women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev2012;
21: 609–618.
72.
Gómez-AceboIDierssen-SotosTPapantoniouKet al.
Association between exposure to rotating night shift versus day shift using levels of 6-sulfatoxymelatonin and cortisol and other sex hormones in women. Chronobiol Int2015;
32: 128–135.
73.
NagataCNagaoYYamamotoSet al.
Light exposure at night, urinary 6-sulfatoxymelatonin, and serum estrogens and androgens in postmenopausal Japanese women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev2008;
17: 1418–1423.
74.
WangFRFangQQTangWMet al.
Nested case-control study of occupational radiation exposure and breast and esophagus cancer risk among medical diagnostic X ray workers in Jiangsu of China. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev2015;
16: 4699–4704.
75.
SigurdsonAJBhattiPDoodyMMet al.
Polymorphisms in apoptosis-and proliferation-related genes, ionizing radiation exposure, and risk of breast cancer among U.S. Radiologic Technologists. Cancer.Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev2007;
16: 2000–2007.
76.
BhattiPDoodyMMAlexanderBHet al.
Breast cancer risk polymorphisms and interaction with ionizing radiation among U.S. radiologic technologists. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev2008;
17: 2007–2011.
77.
BhattiPStruewingJPAlexanderBHet al.
Polymorphisms in DNA repair genes, ionizing radiation exposure and risk of breast cancer in U.S. radiologic technologists. Int J Cancer2008;
122: 177–182.
78.
BuitenhuisWFritschiLThomsonAet al.
Occupational Exposure to Ionizing Radiation and Risk of Breast Cancer in Western Australia. J Occup Environ Med2013;
55: 1431–1435.
79.
GlassDCHeyworthJThomsonAKet al.
Occupational exposure to solvents and risk of breast cancer. Am J Ind Med2015;
58: 915–922.
80.
RennixCPQuinnMMAmorosoPJet al.
Risk of breast cancer among enlisted Army women occupationally exposed to volatile organic compounds. Am J Ind Med2005;
48: 157–167.
81.
EkengaCCParksCGD'AloisioAAet al.
Breast cancer risk after occupational solvent exposure: the influence of timing and setting. Cancer Res2014;
74: 3076–3083.
82.
LabrecheFGoldbergMSValoisMFet al.
Postmenopausal breast cancer and occupational exposures. Occup Environ Med2010;
67: 263–269.
83.
PeplonskaBStewartPSzeszenia-DabrowskaNet al.
Occupational exposure to organic solvents and breast cancer in women. Occup Environ Med2009;
67: 722–729.
84.
AtwoodDPaisley-JonesC. Pesticides industry sales and usage: 2008-2012 market estimates. Report, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 2017.
EngelLSHillDAHoppinJAet al.
Pesticide use and breast cancer risk among farmers’ wives in the agricultural health study. Am J Epidemiol2005;
161: 121–135.
87.
Beane FreemanLERusieckiJAet al.
Atrazine and cancer incidence among pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study (1994–2007). Environ Health Perspect2011;
119: 1253–1259.
88.
AndreottiGHouLBeaneFet al.
Body mass index, agricultural pesticide use, and cancer incidence in the Agricultural Health Study cohort. Cancer Causes Control2010;
21: 1759–1775.
89.
MikoczyZTinnerbergHBjörkJet al.
Cancer incidence and mortality in Swedish sterilant workers exposed to ethylene oxide: updated cohort study findings 1972–2006. Int J Environ Res Public Health2011;
8: 2009–2019.
90.
SteenlandKWhelanEDeddensJet al.
Ethylene oxide and breast cancer incidence in a cohort study of 7576 women (United States). Cancer Causes Control2003;
14: 531–539.
91.
SilverSRWhelanEADeddensJAet al.
Occupational exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and risk of breast cancer. Environ Health Perspect2009;
117: 276.
92.
PrinceMMHeinMJRuderAMet al.
Update: cohort mortality study of workers highly exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) during the manufacture of electrical capacitors, 1940-1998. Environ Health2006;
5: 1.
93.
OddoneEEdefontiVScaburriAet al.
Female breast cancer and electrical manufacturing: results of a nested case-control study. J Occup Health2014;
56: 369–378.
94.
ThompsonDKriebelDQuinnMMet al.
Occupational exposure to metalworking fluids and risk of breast cancer among female autoworkers. Am J Ind Med2005;
47: 153–160.
95.
KuperHYangLTheorellTet al.
Job strain and risk of breast cancer. Epidemiology2007;
18: 764–768.
96.
HeikkilaKNybergSTMadsenIEHet al.
IPD-Work Consortium. Long working hours and cancer risk: a multi-cohort study. Br J Cancer2016;
114: 813–818.
97.
PudrovskaTCarrDMcFarlandMet al.
Higher-status occupations and breast cancer: A life-course stress approach. Soc Sci Med2013;
89: 53–61.
98.
PudrovskaT.Job authority and breast cancer. Soc Forces2013;
92: 1–24.
99.
NomuraSJODashCRosenbergLet al.
Sedentary time and breast cancer incidence in African American women. Cancer Causes Control2016;
27: 1239–1252.
100.
JohnssonABrobergPJohnssonAet al.
Occupational sedentariness and breast cancer risk. Acta Oncol2017;
56: 75–80.
101.
LynchBMCourneyaKSFriedenreichCM.A case-control study of lifetime occupational sitting and likelihood of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control2013;
24: 1257–1262.
102.
DornJVenaJBrasureJet al.
Lifetime physical activity and breast cancer risk in pre- and postmenopausal women. Med Sci Sports Exerc2003;
35: 278–285.
103.
JohnEMHorn-RossPLKooJ.Lifetime physical activity and breast cancer risk in a multiethnic population: the San Francisco Bay area breast cancer study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev2003;
12: 1143–1152.
104.
KrukJ.Lifetime occupational physical activity and the risk of breast cancer: a case-control study. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev2009;
10: 443–448.
105.
KrukJAboul-EneinHY.Occupational physical activity and the risk of breast cancer. Cancer Detect Prev2003;
27: 187–192.
106.
EkengaCCParksCGSandlerDP.A prospective study of occupational physical activity and breast cancer risk. Cancer Causes Control2015;
26: 1779–1789.
107.
LiWRayRMThomasDBet al.
Occupational exposure to magnetic fields and breast cancer among women textile workers in Shanghai, China. Am J Epidemiol2013;
178: 1038–1045.
108.
LabrècheFGoldbergMSValoisM-Fet al.
Occupational exposures to extremely low frequency magnetic fields and postmenopausal breast cancer. Am J Ind Med2003;
44: 643–652.
109.
McElroyJAEganKMTitus-ErnstoffLet al.
Occupational exposure to electromagnetic field and breast cancer risk in a large, population-based, case-control study in the United States. J Occup Environ Med2007;
49: 266–274.
110.
ChenCHuangY-BLiuX-Oet al.
Active and passive smoking with breast cancer risk for Chinese females: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Chin J Cancer2014;
33: 306–316.
111.
LeePNHamlingJS.Environmental tobacco smoke exposure and risk of breast cancer in nonsmoking women. An updated review and meta-analysis. Inhal Toxicol2016;
28: 431–454.
112.
AndersonLNCotterchioMMireaLet al.
Passive cigarette smoke exposure during various periods of life, genetic variants, and breast cancer risk among never smokers. Am.J Epidemiol2012;
175: 289–301.
113.
IBCERCC. Breast cancer and the environment. Prioritizing prevention. Report for the Cancer and Environmental Research Coordinating Committee (IBCERCC), February 2013. Washington, DC: IBCERCC.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
