System Dynamics (SD) is an experimental, quantitative approach for designing structures of social systems and policies that are compatible with a social system’s growth and stability objectives. The experimental model approach for the design of large scale systems is the key for learning about human organizations. Before elaborating on the types of learning environments that can be designed on the basis of SD models, this article presents a social systems theory, distinguishing classical and autopoietic systems theory. Two generic models are presented, which reflect both theoretical points of view and constitute different types of learning environments. The author summarizes epistemological views on learning and growth of knowledge in the context of learning as acquisition and learning as interaction. Subsequently, by building on the actor approach of social systems, learners are embedded in learning environments. They should learn to deal with the duality of structure of social systems, that is, learn to produce and self-reproduce structures as a context for action. Finally, these views are linked to three simulation modes and to participative design of learning environments.
Allport, F. H.
(1962). Astructuronomic conception of behavior: Individual and collective. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 64, 3-30.
2.
Ashby, W. R.
(1968). Principles of the self-organizing system. In W. Buckley (Ed.), Modern systems research for the behavioral scientist(pp. 108-118). Chicago: Aldine.
3.
Bandura, A.
(1996). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
4.
Barlas, Y.
(1996). Formal aspect of model validity and validation in system dynamics. System Dynamics Review, 12(3), 183-210.
5.
Barlas, Y.
,& Carpenter, S. (1990). Philosophical roots of model validation: Two paradigms. System Dynamics Review, 6(2), 148-166.
6.
Bekey, G. E.
(1971). Mathematical models in large systems. Paper presented at the meeting of the IEEE Systems Man and Cybernetics Group, Annual Symposium Record.
7.
Checkland, P.
, & Scholes, J. (1990). Soft systems methodology in action. New York: John Wiley.
8.
Churchman, C. W.
(1970). The client and the model. In R. M. Stogdill (Ed.), The process of model building in the behavioral sciences(pp. 14-30). Ohio State University Press.
9.
Davidsen, P. I.
(1994). Perspectives on teaching System Dynamics: Coupling structure and behavior, annotating simulations, and supporting Just in Time Open Learning (JITOL). Proceedings of the 1994 International System Dynamics Conference, Microworlds, 9-19.
10.
Davidsen, P. I.
(1996). Educational features of the system dynamics approach to modelling and simulation. Journal of Structured Learning, 12(4), 269-290.
11.
Davidsen, P. I.
,& Myrtveit, M. (1994). Der Rütli management simulator—A newconcept in system dynamics based management flight simulators. Proceedings of the 1994 International System Dynamics Conference, Education, 10-16.
12.
Dewey, J.
(1960). The quest for certainty. New York: Capricorn.
13.
Dewey, J.
(1981). Experience and nature. In J. A. Boydston (Ed.), John Dewey: The later works, 1925-1953. Carbondale, IL: Southern University Press.
14.
Dewey, J.
(1989). Appendix 1. In J. A. Boydston (Ed.), John Dewey: The later works, 1925-1953. Carbondale, IL: Southern University Press.
15.
Diggins, J. P.
(1994). The promise of pragmatism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
16.
FISH BANKS. Meadows, D. (1988). Durham, NH: IPSSR Hood House (UNH, 03824, USA).
17.
Fodor, J. A.
(1998). Concepts: Where cognitive science went wrong. Oxford, UK: Clarendon.
18.
Forrester, J. W.
(1961). Industrial dynamics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
19.
Forrester, J. W.
(1968). Principles of systems. Cambridge, MA: Wright Allen.
20.
Forrester, J. W.
(1969). Urban dynamics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
21.
Forrester, J. W.
(1971). World dynamics. Cambridge, MA: Wright Allen.
22.
Giddens, A.
(1993). New rules of sociological method. Cambridge, MA: Polity.
23.
Greeno, J. G.
(1997). On claims that answer the wrong question. Educational Researcher, 26(1), 5-17.
24.
Heylighen, F.
(1990). A new transdisciplinary paradigm for the study of complex systems? In F. Heylighen, E. Rosseel, & F. Demeyere (Eds.), Self-steering and cognition in complex systems: Towards a new cybernetics(pp. 1-16). London: Gordon and Breach.
25.
Klabbers, J.H.G.
(1975). General system theory and social systems: A methodology for the social sciences. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie, 30, 493-514.
26.
Klabbers, J.H.G.
(1985). Instruments for planning and policy formation: Methodological considerations. Simulation & Games, 16(2), 135-160.
27.
Klabbers, J.H.G.
(1986). Improvement of (self-)steering through support systems. In F. Geyer & J. van der Zouwen (Eds.), Sociocybernetic paradoxes(pp. 64-88). London: Sage.
28.
Klabbers, J.H.G.
(1991). Simulation: Learning environments for (self-)steering in social systems. In R. ‘t Veld, L. Schapp, C. Termeer, & M. van Twist (Eds.), Autopoiesis and configuration theory: New approaches to societal steering(pp. 207-221). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer.
29.
Klabbers, J.H.G.
(1996). Problem framing through gaming: Learning to manage complexity, uncertainty and value adjustment. Simulation & Gaming, 27(1), 74-92.
30.
Klabbers, J.H.G.
, van der Hijden, P., Hoefnagels, K., & Truin, G. J. (1980). Development of an interactive simulation/game: A case study of DENTIST. Simulation & Games, 11(1), 59-86.
31.
Krippendorf, K.
(1971). Communication and the genesis of structure. General Systems, 16, 171-185.
32.
Kuhn, T. S.
(1962). The structure of scientific revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
33.
Larsen, E. R.
, Morecroft, J.D.W,& Murphy, J. (1991). Helping management teams to model: A project in the consumer electronics industry. Paper presented at the System Dynamics Conference, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
34.
Marconi, D.
(1998). Lexical competence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
35.
Maturana, H. R.
,& Varela, F. J. (1980). Autopoiesis and cognition: The realization of the living. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Reidel.
36.
McClelland, D. C.
(1985). Human motivation. New York: Scott Foresman.
37.
Meadows, D. L.
, Behrens, W. W., Meadows, D. H., Naill, R., Randers, J.,& Zahn E. K. O. (1972). Dynamics of growth in a finite world. Cambridge: Wright Allen.
38.
Morecroft, J.W.D.
(1992). Executive knowledge, models and learning. European Journal of Operations Research, 59, 9-27.
39.
Parsons, T.
, & Shils, E. A. (Eds.). (1951). Toward a general theory of action. New York: Harper & Row.
40.
Piaget, J.
(1980). The psychogenesis of knowledge and its epistemological significance. In M. Piatelli-Palmarini (Ed.), Language and learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
41.
Prawat, R. S.
(1998). Current self-regulation views of learning and motivation viewed through a Deweyan lens: The problems with dualism. American Educational Research Journal, 35(2), 199-224.
42.
Randers, J.
(1972). Model validity versus utility of a model. Lecture at the System Dynamics Summer Institute, Hannover, Germany.
43.
Rogoff, B.
(1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
44.
Senge, P. M.
(1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday.
45.
Senge, P. M.
, Kleiner, A., Roberst, C., Ross, R. B.,& Smith, B. J. (1994). The fifth discipline fieldbook. New York: Doubleday.
46.
Sfard, A.
(1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4-13.
47.
Sternberg, R. J.
(1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
48.
Sternberg, R. J.
(1997). Thinking styles. New York: Cambridge University Press.
49.
Sternberg, R. J.
(1998). Abilities are forms of developing expertise. Educational Researcher, 27(3), 11-20.
50.
Sternberg, R. J.
, Wagner, R. K., Williams, W. M., & Horvath, J. (1995). Testing common sense. American Psychologist, 50, 912-927.
51.
STRATEGEM. Meadows, D. (1984). Durham, NH: IPSSR Hood House, UNH, Durham, NH, 03824, USA.
52.
Vennix, J.A.M. (1990). Mental models and computer models: Design and evaluation of a computer-based learning environment for policy-making. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
53.
Verburgh, L. (1994). Participative policy modelling. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nijmegen University, the Netherlands.
54.
Von Foerster, H.
(1973). On constructing a reality. In F. Preiser (Ed.), Environmental design research (pp. 35-46). Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
55.
Von Foerster, H.
(1984). Principles of self-organization in a socio-managerial context. In H. Ulrich& G.J.B. Probst (Eds.), Self-organization and management of social systems(pp. 2-24). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
56.
Von Glasersfeld, E.
(1991). Radical constructivism in mathematics education. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer.
57.
Weick, K. E.
(1979). The social psychology of organizing. London: Addison-Wesley.
58.
Weick, K. E.
,& Westley, F. (1996). Organizational learning: Affirming an oxymoron. In S. R. Clegg& W. R. Nord, Handbook of organization studies(pp. 440-458). London: Sage.
