Social cognitive theory is used to develop a research model that was tested by examining employees’ experiences of being a member in a traditional or virtual team. A self-efficacy for teamwork measure was developed based on best practices identified through case studies and existing literature. Then a survey of team members demonstrated that self-efficacy for teamwork is influenced by fellow team members’ modeling practices and relates strongly to a team member’s perceptions of effectiveness. Differential outcomes for traditional and two types of technology-supported virtual teams (distributed and hybrid) were found: Self-efficacy for teamwork was more important in virtual teams, providing empirical support for the importance of the best practices in this context.
Anderson, T. W., & Sclove S. L. (1978). An introduction to the statistical analysis of data. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
2.
Armstrong, D. J., & Cole, P. (2002). Managing distances and differences in geographically distributed work groups. In P. Hinds & S. Kiesler (Eds.), Distributed work (pp. 167-186). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
3.
Armstrong, J. S., & Overton, T. S. (1977). Estimating non-response bias in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing Research, 14, 396-402.
4.
Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14, 20-39.
5.
Bagozzi, R. P., Yi, Y., & Singh, S. (1991). On the use of structural equation models in experimental designs: Two extensions. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 8, 125-140.
6.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
7.
Bandura, A. (1978). Reflections on self-efficacy. Advances in Behavioral Research and Therapy, 1, 237-269.
8.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122-147.
9.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
10.
Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 248-287.
11.
Bandura, A. (1995). Exercise of personal and collective efficacy in changing societies. In A. Bandura (Ed.), Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 1-45). New York: Cambridge University Press.
12.
Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1986). Differential engagement of self-reactive mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38, 92-113.
13.
Barclay, D., Higgins, C., & Thompson, R. (1995). The partial least squares (PLS) approach to causal modeling: Personal computer adoption and use as an illustration. Technology Studies, 2, 285-209.
14.
Barling, J., & Beattie, R. (1983). Self-efficacy beliefs and sales performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 5, 41-51.
15.
Bayazit, M., & Mannix, E. A. (2003). Should I stay or should I go? Predicting team members intent to remain in the team. Small Group Research, 34, 290-321.
16.
Belanger, F., & Collins, R. W. (1998). Distributed work arrangements: A research framework. Information Society, 14, 137-152.
17.
Bell, M. A. (2005). Virtual hybrid workgroups are critical to successful offshore sourcing (Research Report G00127790). Stamford, CT: Gartner.
18.
Bettenhausen, K. L. (1991). Five years of group research: What we have learned and what needs to be addressed. Journal of Management, 17, 345-381.
19.
Beyerlein, M. (2001). Virtual teams. Oxford, UK: JAI.
20.
Bourdon, S. (2000, September). Inter-coder reliability verification using QSR NUD*IST. Paper presented at Strategies in Qualitative Research: Issues and Results From Analysis Using QSR NVivo and QSR NUD*IST, the Institute of Education, University of London.
21.
Breu, K., & Hemingway, C. J. (2004). Making organizations virtual: The hidden costs of distributed teams. Journal of Information Technology, 19, 191-202.
22.
Burke, K., Aytes, K., Chidambaram, L., & Johnson, J. (1999). A study of partially distributed work groups: The impact of media, location, and time on perceptions and performance. Small Group Research, 30, 453-490.
23.
Campion, M. A., Medsker, G. J., & Higgs, A. C. (1993). Relations between work group characteristics and effectiveness: Implications for designing effective work groups. Personnel Psychology, 46, 823-850.
24.
Cannon, M. D., & Witherspoon, R. (2005). Actionable feedback: Unlocking the power of learning and performance improvement. Academy of Management Executive, 19, 120-134.
25.
Chin, W. W. (1998). The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling. In G. A. Marcoulides (Ed.), Modern methods for business research (pp. 295-336). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
26.
Christmann, P. (2000). Effects of “best practices” of environmental management on cost advantage: The role of complementary assets. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 663-680.
27.
Clutterbuck, D. (2004). The challenge of the virtual team. Training Journal (August), pp. 25-28.
28.
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
29.
Cohen, J. A. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 37-46.
30.
Cohen, S. G. (1994). Designing effective self-managing work teams. In M. M. Beyerlein, D. A. Johnson, & S. T. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams, Volume 1. Series of self-managed work teams. Greenwich, CT: JAI.
31.
Cohen, S. G., & Bailey, D. E. (1997). What makes teams work: Group effectiveness research from the shop floor to the executive suite. Journal of Management, 23, 239-290.
32.
Cohen, S. G., & Gibson, C. B. (2003, April). Putting the team back in virtual teams. Paper presented at the 18th annual conference of the Society for Industrial/Organizational Psychology, Orlando, FL.
33.
Cohen’s Kappa [Web site]. (2006). Lincoln: University of Nebraska. Retrieved August 21, 2006, from http://www-class.unl.edu/psycrs/handcomp/hckappa.PDF
34.
Compeau, D. R., & Higgins, C. A. (1995). Computer self-efficacy: Development of a measure and initial test. MIS Quarterly, 19, 189-211.
35.
Compeau, D. R., Gravill, J., Haggerty, N., & Kelley, H. (2006). Computer self-efficacy: A review. In V. Zwass (Ed.), Human-computer interaction in management information systems (Vol. 1). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
36.
Cramton, C. D. (2002). Attribution in distributed work groups. In P. Hinds & S. Kiesler (Eds.), Distributed work (pp. 191-212). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
37.
Decker, P. D. (1986). Social learning theory and leadership. Journal of Management Development, 5, 46-59.
38.
Duarte, D. L., & Snyder, N. T. (2001). Mastering virtual teams: Strategies, tools, and techniques that succeed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
39.
Ellis, R. A., & Taylor, M. S. (1983). Role of self-esteem within the job search process. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 632-640.
40.
Fiol, C. M., & O’Connor, E. J. (2005). Identification in face-to-face, hybrid, and pure virtual teams: Untangling the contradictions. Organization Science, 16, 19-32.
41.
Fisher, K., & Fisher, M. D. (2001). The distance manager: A hands-on guide to managing off-site employees and virtual teams. New York: McGraw-Hill.
42.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 382-388.
43.
Gibson, C. B., & Cohen, S. G. (2003). The last word: Conclusions and implications. In C. B. Gibson & S. G. Cohen, Virtual teams that work: Creating conditions for virtual team effectiveness (pp. 403-421). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
44.
Gibson, C. B., Randel, A. E., & Earley, P. C. (2000). Understanding group efficacy: An empirical test of multiple assessment methods. Group & Organization Management, 25, 67-97.
45.
Gist, M. E. (1989). The influence of training method on self-efficacy and idea generation among managers. Personnel Psychology, 42, 787-805.
46.
Gist, M. E., & Mitchell, T. R. (1992). Self-efficacy: A theoretical analysis of its determinants and malleability. Academy of Management Review, 17, 183-211.
47.
Gist, M. E., Schwoerer, C., & Rosen, B. (1989). Effects of alternative training methods on self-efficacy and performance in computer software training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 884-891.
48.
Goodbody, J. (2005). Critical success factors for global virtual teams. Strategic Communication Management, 9, 18-21.
49.
Goodman, P. S., Ravlin, E., & Schminke, M. (1987). Understanding groups in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 9, 121-173.
50.
Grenier, R., & Metes, M. (1995). Going virtual. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
51.
Griffith, T. L., Sawyer, J. E., & Neale, M. A. (2003). Virtualness and knowledge in teams: Managing the love triangle in organizations, individuals, and information technology. MIS Quarterly, 27, 265-287.
52.
Gully, S. M., Joshi, A., Incalcaterra, K. A., & Beaubien, J. M. (2002). A meta-analysis of team-efficacy, potency, and performance: Interdependence and level of analysis as moderators of observed relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 819-832.
53.
Guzzo, R. A., & Shea, G. P. (1992). Group performance and intergroup relations in organizations. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 3). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists.
54.
Hackman, J. R. (1991). Groups that work (and those that don’t). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
55.
Haywood, M. (1998). Managing virtual teams: Practical techniques for high-technology project managers. Boston: Artech House.
56.
Hill, T., Smith, N. D., & Mann, M. F. (1987). Role of efficacy expectations in predicting the decision to use advanced technologies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 307-314.
57.
Hinds, P., & Kiesler, S. (Eds.). (2002). Distributed work. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
58.
Holland, S., Gaston, K. & Gomes, J. (2000). Critical success factors for cross-functional team-work in new product development. International Journal of Management Review, 2, 231-259.
59.
House, R. J., Schuler, R. S., & Levanoni, E. (1983). Role conflict and ambiguity scales: Reality or artifacts?Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 334-337.
60.
Hulland, J. S. (1999). Use of partial least squares (PLS) in strategic management research: A review of four recent studies. Strategic Management Journal, 20, 195-204.
61.
Jehn, K. A. (1995). A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 256-282.
62.
Joreskog, K. G., & Sorbom, D. (1989). LISREL 7: A guide to the program and applications (2nd ed.). Chicago: SPSS.
63.
Jung, D. I., & Sosik, J. J. (1999). Effects of group characteristics on work group performance: A longitudinal investigation. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Practice, 3, 279-290.
64.
Leidner, D., & Kayworth, T. (2001). Leadership effectiveness in global virtual teams. Journal of Management Information Systems, 18, 7-40.
65.
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Larkin, K. C. (1987). Comparison of three theoretically derived variables in predicting career and academic behavior: Self-efficacy, interest congruence, and consequence thinking. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 293-298.
66.
Lewis, A. C., & Sherman, S. J. (2003). Hiring you makes me look bad: Social-identity based reversal of the ingroup favoritism effect. Organization Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90, 262-276.
67.
Lipnack, J., & Stamps, J. (1997). Virtual teams: Reaching across space, time, and organizations with technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
68.
Lurey, J., & Raisinghani, M. (2001). An empirical study of best practices in virtual teams. Information & Management, 38, 523-544.
69.
Malhotra, A., Majchrzak, A., Carman, R., & Lott, V. (2001). Radical innovation without collocation: A case study at Boeing-Rocketdyne. MIS Quarterly, 25, 229-249.
70.
Martins, L. L., Gilson, L. L., Maynard, M. T. (2004). Virtual teams: What do we know and where do we go from here?Journal of Management, 30, 804-835.
71.
Mauer, T. J., & Pierce, H. R. (1998). A comparison of Likert scale and traditional measures of self-efficacy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 324-329.
72.
Maynard, M. T. (2005). Group potency: Are virtual teams at a development disadvantage? Paper presented at the Academy of Management meeting, Honolulu, HI.
73.
McCloskey, D. W., & Igbaria, M. (1998). A review of the empirical research on telecommuting and directions for future research. In M. Igbaria & M. Tan (Eds.), The virtual work-place (pp. 338-358). Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
74.
Moore, G. C., & Benbasat, I. (1991). Development of an instrument to measure the perceptions of adopting an information technology innovation. Information Systems Research, 2, 192-222.
75.
Morello, D. (2005). The human impact of business IT: How to avoid diminishing returns (Research Report G00125740). Stamford, CT: Gartner.
76.
Mortensen, M., & Hinds, P. (2001). Conflict and shared identity in geographically distributed teams. International Journal of Conflict Management, 12, 212-238.
77.
Mulvey, P. W., & Klein, H. J. (1998). The impact of perceived loafing and collective efficacy on group goal processes and group performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 74, 62-87.
78.
O’Hara-Devereaux, M., & Johansen, R. (1994). Global work: Bridging distance, culture & time. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
79.
O’Leary, M. C., & Cummings, J. N. (2002). The spatial, temporal, and configurational characteristics of geographic dispersion in teams. Paper presented at the Academy of Management meeting, Denver, CO.
80.
Pedhazur, E. J. (1982). Multiple regression in behavioral research: explanation and prediction (2nd ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
81.
Pescosolido, A. T. (2003). Group efficacy and group effectiveness: The effects of group efficacy over time on group performance and development. Small Group Research, 34, 20-42.
82.
Pinsonneault, A., & Boisvert, M. (2001). The impacts of telecommuting on organizations and individuals: A review of the literature. In N. J. Johnson (Ed.), Telecommuting and virtual offices: Issues & opportunities (pp. 163-185). Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
83.
Pinsonneault, A., & Caya, O. (2005). Virtual teams: What we know, what we don’t know. International Journal of E-Collaboration, 1(3), 1-16.
84.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903.
85.
Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12, 531-544.
86.
Powell, A., Piccoli, G., & Ives, B. (2004). Virtual teams: A review of current literature and directions for future research. Data Base for Advances in Information Systems, 35, 6-36.
87.
Raghuram, S., Wiesenfeld, B., & Garud, R. (2003). Technology enabled work: The role of self-efficacy in determining telecommuter adjustment and structuring behavior. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 180-198.
88.
Riggs, M. L, & Knight, P. A. (1994). The impact of perceived group success-failure on motivation beliefs and attitudes: A causal model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 755-766.
89.
Saks, A. M. (1995). Longitudinal field investigation of the moderating and mediating effects of self-efficacy on the relationship between training and newcomer adjustment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 211-225.
90.
Sapsed, J., Bessant, J., Partington, D., Tranfield, D., & Young, M. (2001). Teamworking and knowledge management: A review of converging themes. International Journal of Management Reviews, 4(1), 71-85.
91.
Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1998). Self-efficacy and work-related performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 240-261.
92.
Stanton, J. M., & Weiss, E. M. (2002). Online panels for social science research: An introduction to the StudyResponse project (Technical Report No. 13001). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, School of Information Studies. Retrieved June 7, 2005, from http://istprojects.syr.edu/%7Estudyresponse/studyresponse/TechRpt13001.pdf
93.
Staples, D. S., Hulland, J. S., & Higgins, C. A. (1999). A self-efficacy theory explanation for the management of remote workers in virtual organizations. Organization Science, 10, 758-776.
94.
Staples, D. S., Wong, I. K., & Cameron, A. F. (2004). Best practices for virtual team effectiveness. In D. Pauleen (Ed.), Virtual teams: Projects, protocols and processes (pp. 160-185). Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
95.
Steelman, L. A., & Rutkowski, K. A. (2004). Moderators of employee reactions to negative feedback. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 19, 6-18.
96.
Stumpf, S. A., Brief, A. P., & Hartman, K. (1987). Self-efficacy expectations and coping with career-related events. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31, 91-108.
97.
Switzer, T. R. (1997). Telecommuters, the workforce of the twenty-first century: An annotated bibliography. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow.
98.
Taylor, M. S., Locke, E. A., Lee, C., & Gist, M. E. (1984). Type A behavior and faculty research productivity: What are the mechanisms?Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process, 34, 402-418.
99.
Van de Ven, A. H., & Ferry, D. L. (1980). Measuring and assessing organizations. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
100.
Wallace, J. C., & Chen, G. (2005). Development and validation of a work-specific measure of cognitive failure: Implications for occupational safety. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 615-632.
101.
Warr, P., Cook, J., & Wall, T. (1979). Scales for the measurement of some work attitudes and aspects of psychological well-being. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 52, 129-148.
102.
Webster, J., & Martocchio, J. J. (1995). The differential effects of software training previews on training outcomes. Journal of Management, 21, 757-787.
103.
Webster, J., & Wong, W. (in press). Group identity, trust, and communication in naturally-occurring project teams. International Journal of Human Resource Management.
104.
Weekes, S. (2005, January 25). Focus on virtual teams. Personnel Today, p. 11-11.
105.
Wold, H. (1985). Systems analysis by partial least squares. In P. Nijkamp, L. Leitner, & N. Wrigley (Eds.), Measuring the unmeasurable (pp. 221-251). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Marinus Nijhoff.
106.
Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory of organizational management. Academy of Management Review, 14, 361-384.
