Recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS) is one of the most common oral mucosal disorders. Nevertheless, while the clinical characteristics of RAS are well-defined, the precise etiology and pathogenesis of RAS remain unclear. The present article provides a detailed review of the current knowledge of the etiology, pathogenesis, and managment of RAS.
References
1.
Abdulla YH, Lehner T. (1979). The effect of immune complexes on chemotaxis in Behçet's syndrome and recurrent oral ulcers. In: Behçet's syndrome: clinical and immunological features. Lehner T, Barnes CG, editors. London: Academic Press, p. 55-59.
2.
Addy M. ( 1977). Hibitane in the treatment of recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Clin Periodontol4:108-116.
3.
Addy M., Tapper-Jones L., Seal M. ( 1974). Trial of astringent and antibacterial mouthwashes in the management of recurrent aphthous ulceration. Br Dent J141:118-20.
4.
Addy M., Carpenter R., Roberts WR (1976). Management of recurrent aphthous ulceration-a trial of chlorhexidine gluconate gel. Br Dent J141:118-120.
5.
Adinolfi M., Lehner T. (1976). Acute phase proteins and C9 in patients with Behçet's syndrome and aphthous ulcers. Clin Exp Immunol25:36-39.
6.
Albanidou-Farmaki E., Kayavis IG, Polymenidis Z., Papanayotou P. (1988). HLA-A, B, C and DR antigens in recurrent oral ulcers. Ann Dent47:5-8.
7.
Arbesfeld SJ, Kurban AK (1988). Behçet's disease-new perspectives on an enigmatic syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol19:767-779.
8.
Axell T., Henricsson V. (1985a). Association between recurrent aphthous ulcers and tobacco habits. J Dent Res93:239-242.
9.
Axéll T., Henricsson V. (1985b). The occurrence of recurrent aphthous ulcers in an adult Swedish population. Acta Odontol Scand43:121-125.
10.
Bagan J. (1995). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. In: Innovations and developments in noninvasive orofacial health care. Porter SR, Scully C, editors. Northwood: Science Reviews, pp. 75-95.
11.
Bagg J., Williams BD, Amos N., Dagalis P., Walker DM (1987). Absence of circulating IgG immune complexes in minor recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol16:53-56.
12.
Barile MF, Graykowski EA, Driscoll EJ, Riggs DB (1963). L-form of bacteria isolated from recurrent aphthous stomatitis lesions. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol16:1395-1402.
13.
Barile MF, Francis TC, Graykowski EA (1968). Streptococcus sanguis in the pathogenesis of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. In: Microbial protoplasts, spheroplasts and L-forms. Guze LB, editor. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, p. 444-449.
14.
Ben-Aryeh H., Malberger E., Gutman D., Anavi Y. (1976). Salivary IgA and serum IgG and IgA in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol42:746-752.
15.
Brady H., Silverman S. (1969). Studies on recurrent oral aphthae. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol27:27-34.
16.
Brookman R. (1960). Relief of canker sores on resumption of cigarette smoking. CA Med93:235-236.
17.
Brown RS, Bottomley WK (1990). Combination immunosuppressant and topical steroid therapy for treatment of recurrent major aphthae. A case report. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathot69:420-424.
18.
Buajeeb W., Laohapand P., Vongsavan N., Kraivaphan P. (1990). Anxiety in recurrent aphthous stomatitis patients. J Dent Assoc Thai40:253-258.
19.
Burnett PR, Wray D. ( 1985). Lytic effects of serum and mononuclear leukocytes on oral epithelial cells in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Clin Immunol Immunopathol34:197-204.
20.
Burton-Kee JE, Mowbray JF, Lehner T. (1981). Different cross-reacting circulating immune complexes in Behçet's syndrome and recurrent oral ulcers. J Lab Clin Med97:559-567.
21.
Challacombe SJ, Barkhan P., Lehner T. (1977a). Haematological features and differentiation of recurrent oral ulceration. Br J Oral Surg15:37-48.
22.
Challacombe SJ, Batchelor JR, Kennedy LA, Lehner T. (1977b). HLA antigens in recurrent oral ulcerations. Arch Dermatol113:1717-1719.
23.
Challacombe SJ, Scully C., Keevil B., Lehner T. (1983). Serum ferritin in recurrent oral ulceration. J Oral Pathol12:290-299.
24.
Collier PM, Neill SM, Copeman PW (1992). Topical 5-aminosalicylic acid: a treatment for aphthous ulcers. Br J Dermatol126:185-188.
25.
Convissar RA, Massoumi-Sourey M. (1992). Recurrent aphthous ulcers: Etiology and laser ablation. Gen Dent44: 512-515.
26.
Cooke BED, Armitage P. (1960). Recurrent Mikulicz's aphthae treated with topical hydrocortisone hemisuccinate sodium. Br Med J1:764-766.
27.
Crevelli MR, Aguas S., Adler I., Quarracino C., Bazerque P. (1988). Influence of socioeconomic status on oral mucosa lesion prevalence in schoolchildren. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol16:58-60.
28.
Dagalis P., Bagg J., Walker DM (1987). Spontaneous migration and chemotactic activity of neutrophil polymorphonuclear leukocytes in recurrent aphthous ulceration. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol64:298-301.
29.
Das SK, Das V., Gulati AK, Singh VP (1989). Deglycyrrhizinated liquorice in aphthous ulcers. J Assoc Phys India37:647.
30.
De Meyer J., Degreave M., Clarysse J., De Loose F., Peremans W. (1977). Levamisole in aphthous stomatitis: evaluation of three regimens. Br Med J1:671-674.
31.
Delke I., Veridiano NP, Tancer ML, Gomez L., Diamond J. (1981). Sweet's syndrome with involvement of the female genital tract. Obstet Gynecol58:394-396.
32.
Denman AR, Schiff AA (1979). Recurrent oral ulceration treatment of recurrent aphthous ulceration of the oral cavity. Br Med J1:1248-1249.
33.
Di Alberti L., Ngui SL, Porter SR, Speight PM, Scully C., Zakrzewska JM, et al. (1997a). Presence of human herpesvirus-8 variants in the oral tissues of human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. J Infect Dis175:703-707.
34.
Di Alberti L., Porter SR, Speight P., Scully C., Zakrzewska JM, Williams I., et al. (1997b). Detection of human herpesvirus-8 DNA in oral ulcer tissues of HIV-infected individuals. Oral Diseases3(Suppl 1): S133-S134.
35.
Dodd K., Ruchman I. (1950). Herpes simplex virus not the aetiologic agent of recurrent stomatitis. Pediatrics5:883-887.
36.
Dolby AE (1968). Recurrent Mikulicz's oral aphthae-their relationship to the menstrual cycle. Br Dent J124:359-360.
37.
Dolby AE (1969). Recurrent aphthous ulceration. Effect of sera and peripheral blood lymphocytes upon oral epithelial tissue culture cells. Immunology17:709-714.
38.
Dolby AE, Walker DM (1975). A trial of cromoglycic acid in recurrent aphthous ulceration. Br J Oral Surg12:292-295.
39.
Dolby AE, Walker DM, Slade M., Allan C. (1977). HLA histocompatibility antigens in recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Dent Res56:105-107.
40.
Donatsky O. (1976). A leucocyte migration study on the cell-mediated immunity against adult human oral mucosa and streptococcal antigens in patients with recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand84(C):227-234.
41.
Donatsky O., Justesen T., Lind K., Faber Vestergaard B. (1977). Microorganisms in recurrent aphthous ulcerations. Scand J Dent Res85:426-433.
42.
Donatsky O., Worsaae N., Schiodt M., Johnsen T. (1983). Effect of Zendium toothpaste on recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Scand J Dent Res91:376-80.
43.
Dorsey C. (1964). More observation on relief of aphthous stomatitis on resumption of cigarette smoking. CA Med101:377-378.
44.
Driban NE, Alvarez MA (1984). Oral manifestations of Sweet's syndrome. Dermatologica169:102-103.
45.
Drinnan AJ, Fischman SL (1978). Randomised, double-blind study of levamisole in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Oral Pathol7:414-417.
46.
Driscoll E.), Ship II, Barow S., Stanley HR, Utz IP (1961). Chronic aphthous stomatitis, herpes labialis and related conditions. Ann Intern Med50:1475-1496.
47.
Eglin RP, Lehner T., Subak-Sharpe JH (1982). Detection of RNA complementary to herpes simplex virus in mononuclear cells from patients with Behçet's syndrome and recurrent oral ulcers. Lancet2:1356-1361.
48.
Eisen D., Ellis CN (1990). Topical cyclosporine for oral mucosal disorders. J Am Acad Dermatol23:1259-1263.
49.
Eisenbud L., Horowitz I., Kay B. (1987). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis of the Behçet's type: successful treatment with thalidomide. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol64:289-292.
50.
Ely H. (1988). Pentoxifylline therapy in dermatology. Dermatol Clin6:585-608.
51.
Embil JA, Stephens RG, Mauriel R. (1975). Prevalence of recurrent herpes labialis and aphthous ulcers amoung young adults on six continents. Can Med Assoc J113:630-637.
52.
Endre L. (1991). Recurrent aphthous ulceration with zinc deficiency and cellular immune deficiency. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol72:559-561.
53.
Eversole LR (1994). Immunopathology of oral mucosal ulcerative, desquamative, and bullous diseases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol77:555-571.
54.
Eversole LR, Shopper TP, Chambers DW (1983). Effects of suspected foodstuff challenging agents in the aetiology of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol56:33-38.
55.
Fahmy MS ( 1976). Recurrent aphthous ulcers in a mixed Arab community. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol4:160-164.
56.
Ferguson MM, Wray D., Carmichael HA, Russell RI, Lee FD (1980). Coeliac disease associated with recurrent aphthae. Gut21:223-226.
57.
Ferguson MM, Carter J., Boyle P. (1984). An epidemiological study of factors associated with recurrent aphthae in women. J Oral Med39:212-217.
58.
Ferguson R., Basu MK, Asquith P., Cooke WT (1976). jejunal mucosal abnormalities in patients with recurrent aphthous ulceration. Br Med J1:11-13.
59.
Field EA, Rotter E., Speechley JA, Tyldesley WR (1987). Clinical and haematological assessment of children with recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Br Dent J163:19-22.
60.
Field EA, Brookes V., Tyldesley WR (1992). Recurrent aphthous ulceration in children-a review. Int J Paed Dent2:1-10.
61.
Fisher N. (1979). Bextasol and aphthous ulcers (letter). Br Med J1:1357.
62.
Gadol N., Greenspan JS, Hoover CI, Olsen J. (1985). Leukocyte migration inhibition in recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol14:121-132.
63.
Gallina G., Cumbo V., Messina P., Caruso C. (1985). HLA-A, B, C, DR, MT and MB antigens in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol59:364-370.
64.
Gatot A., Tovi F. ( 1984). Colchicine therapy in recurrent oral ulcers (letter). Arch Dermatol120:994.
65.
Genvo MF, Faure M., Thivolet J. (1984). Traitement de l'aphtose par la thalidomide et la colchicine. Dermcitologica168:182-188.
66.
Gier RE, George B., Wilson T., Rueger A., Hart JIK, Quaison F., et al. (1978). Evaluation of the therapeutic effect of levamisole in treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Oral Pathol7:405-413.
67.
Godeau P. (1993). Aortic insufficiency and recurrent valve prosthesis dehiscence in MAGIC syndrome. J Rheumatol20:397-398.
68.
Grattan CEH, Scully C. (1986). Oral ulceration: a diagnostic problem. Br Med J292:1093-1094.
69.
Graykowski EA, Kingman A. (1978). Double-blind trial of tetracycline in recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol7:376-382.
70.
Greenspan JS, Gadol N., Olsen )A., Talal N. (1981). Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in recurrent aphthous ulceration. Clin Exp Immunol44:603-610.
71.
Greenspan JS, Gadol N., Olson JA, Hoover CI, Jacobsen PL Shillitoe EJ, et al. (1985). Lymphocyte function in recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol14:492-502.
72.
Greer RO Jr, Lindenmuth JE, Juarez T., Khandwala A. (1993). A double-blind study of topically applied 5% amlexanox in the treatment of aphthous ulcers. J Oral Maxillofac Surg51:243-248.
73.
Griffin JW (1963). Fluorescent antibody study of herpes simplex virus lesions and recurrent aphthae. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol16:945-52.
74.
Grinspan D. (1985). Significant response of oral aphthosis to thalidomide treatment. J Am Acad Dermatol12:85-90.
75.
Grinspan D., Blanco GF, Aguero S. (1989). Treatment of aphthae with thalidomide. J Am Acad Dermatol20:1060-1063.
76.
Guggenheimer J., Brightman VJ, Ship II ( 1968). Effect of chlortetracycline mouthrinses on the healing of recurrent aphthous ulcers: a double-blind controlled trial. J Oral Therapeut Pharmacol4:406-408.
77.
Gunzler V. (1992). Thalidomide in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients. A review of safety considerations. Drug Saf7:116-134.
78.
Hakemer D., Piatowska D., Zabinska O. (1971). Chronic diseases of the oral mucosa in children in light of own observations. Czas Stomatol24:871-875.
79.
Hamuryudan V., Yurdakul S., Serdaroglu S., Tuzun Y., Rosenkaimer F., Yazici H. (1990). Topical alpha interferon in the treatment of oral ulcers in Behçet's syndrome: a preliminary report. Clin Exp Rheumatol8:51-54.
80.
Hamuryudan V., Yurdakul S., Rosenkaimer F., Yazici H. (1991). Inefficacy of topical alpha interferon in the treatment of oral ulcers of Behçet's syndrome: a randomised, double-blind trial (letter). Br J Rheumatol30:395-396.
81.
Handfield-Jones S., Allen SR, Littlewood SM (1985). Dapsone use with oral genital ulcers. Br J Dermatol113:501.
82.
Hasan A., Childerstone A., Pervin K., Shinnick T., Mizushima Y., van der Zee R., et al. (1995). Recognition of a unique peptide epitope of the mycobacterial and human heat shock protein 65-60 antigen by T cells of patients with recurrent oral ulcers. Clin Exp Immunol99:392-397.
83.
Hasan A., Fortune F., Wilson A., Warr K., Shinnick T., Mizushima Y., et al. (1996). Role of γδ T cells in pathogenesis and diagnosis of Behçet's disease. Lancet347:789-794.
84.
Hay D., Reade PC (1984). The use of an elimination diet in the treatment of recurrent aphthous ulceration of the oral cavity. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol57:504-507.
85.
Hayrinen-Immonen R., Malmstrom M., Nordstrom D., Hietanen J., Konttinen YT (1991). Immune inflammatory cells in recurrent oral ulcers (ROU). Scand J Dent Res99:510-518.
86.
Hayrinen-Immonen R., Malmstrom M., Nordstrom D., Sorsa T., Konttinen YT (1992). Distribution of adhesion receptors in recurrent oral ulcers. J Oral Pathol Med21:199-202.
87.
Hayrinen-lmmonen R., Sorsa T., Pettila J., Konttinen YT, Teronen O., Malmstrom M. (1994). Effect of tetracyclines on collagenase activity in patients with recurrent aphthous ulcers. J Oral Pathol Med23:269-272.
88.
Healy CM, Thornhill MH (1995). An association between recurrent oro-genital ulceration and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J Oral Pathol Med24:46-48.
89.
Henricsson V., Axell T. (1985). Treatment of recurrent aphthous ulcers with Aureomycin® mouthrinse or Zendium® dentifrice. Acta Odontol Scand43:47-52.
90.
Herlofson BB, Karkvoll P. (1994). Sodium lauryl sulfate and recurrent aphthous ulcers-a preliminary study. Acta Odontol Scand52:257-259.
91.
Honma T. (1976). Electron microscope study on the pathogenesis of recurrent aphthous ulceration as compared to Behçet's syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol41:366-377.
92.
Honma T., Sanito T., Fujioka Y. (1985). Possible role of apoptotic cells of the oral epithelium in the pathogenesis of aphthous ulceration. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol59:379-387.
93.
Hoogendoorn H., Piessens JP (1987). Treatment of aphthous patients by enhancement of the salivary peroxidase system. J Oral Pathol16:425-427.
94.
Hooks II (1978). Possibility of a viral aetiology in recurrent aphthous ulcers and Behçet's syndrome. J Oral Pathol7:353-364.
95.
Hooks JJ, Moutsopoulos HM, Geiss A., Stahl NK, Decker JL, Notkins AL (1979). Immune interferon in the circulation of patients with autoimmune disease. New Engl J Med301:5-8.
96.
Hoover CI, Greenspan IS (1983). Immunochemical antigens of various viridans streptococci, including strain 2A + 3HOT from recurrent aphthous ulceration. Arch Oral Biol28:917-922.
97.
Howell RM, Cohen DM, Powell GL, Green JG (1988). The use of low energy laser therapy to treat aphthous ulcers. Ann Dent47:16-18.
98.
Hunter IP, Ferguson MM, Scully C., Galloway AR, Main AN, Russell RI (1993). Effects of dietary gluten elimination in patients with recurrent minor aphthous stomatitis and no detectable gluten enteropathy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol75:595-598.
99.
Hunter L., Addy M. ( 1987). Chlorhexidine gluconate mouthwash in the management of minor aphthous stomatitis. Br Dent J162:106-110.
100.
Hussain L., Ward R., Lehner T., Barnes CG (1986). Herpes simplex virus IgG, IgM and IgA subclass from sera of patients with Behçet's disease and controls. In: Recent advances in Behçet's disease. Lehner T, Barnes CG, editors. London: Royal Society of Medicine, pp. 73-77.
101.
Hutcheon AW, Wray D., Dagg JH ( 1978). Clinical and haematological screening in recurrent aphthae. Postgrad Med J54:779-783.
102.
Jankowski J., Crombie I., Jankowski R. (1992). Behçet's syndrome in Scotland. Postgrad Med J68:566-570.
103.
Kaloyannides TM (1971). Treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis with gamma globulin: report of five cases. J Can Dent Assoc37:312-313.
104.
Kaplan B., Cardarelli C., Pinnell SR (1978). Double-blind study of levamisole in aphthous stomatitis. J Oral Pathol7:400-404.
105.
Katz J., Langevitz P., Shema J., Barak S., Livneh A. (1994). Prevention of recurrent aphthous stomatitis with colchicine: an open trial. J Am Acad Dermatol31:459-461.
106.
Kleinman DV, Swango PA, Pindborg JJ (1994). Epidemiology of oral mucosal lesions in United States school children: 1986-87. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol22:243-253.
107.
Kowolik MJ, Muir KF, MacPhee IT (1978). Di-sodium cromoglycate in the treatment of recurrent aphthous ulceration. Br Dent J144:383-386.
108.
Landesberg R., Fallon M., Insel R. (1990). Alterations of T helper/inducer and T suppressor/inducer cells in patients with recurrent aphthous ulcers. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol69:205-208.
109.
Lange RD, Jones JB (1981). Cyclic neutropenia: a review of clinical manifestations and management. Ann J Pediat Haematol Oncol3:363-367.
110.
Le Thi Huong D., Wechsler B., Piette JC, Papo T., Jaccard A., Jault F., et al. (1993). Aortic insufficiency and recurrent valve prosthesis dehiscence in MAGIC syndrome. J Rheumatol20:397-398.
111.
Lehner T. (1967). Stimulation of lymphocyte transformation by tissue homogenates in recurrent oral ulceration. Immunol13:159-166.
112.
Lehner T. (1969). Immunological estimation of blood and saliva in human recurrent oral ulceration. Arch Oral Biol14:351-364.
113.
Lehner T. (1977). Progress report: oral ulceration and Behçets Syndrome. Gut18:491-511.
114.
Lehner T., Adinolfi M. (1980). Acute phase proteins, C9, factor B and lysozyme in recurrent oral ulceration and Behçet's syndrome. J Clin Pathol33:269-275.
115.
Lehner T., Wilton IMA, Ivanyi L. (1976). Double-blind crossover trial of levamisole in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Lancet2:926-929.
116.
Lehner T., Losito A., Williams DG (1979). Cryoglobulins in Behçet's syndrome and recurrent oral ulceration: assay by laser nephelometry. Clin Exp Immunol38:436-444.
117.
Lehner T., Welsh KI, Batchelor JR (1982). The relationship of HLA-B and DR phenotypes to Behçet's syndrome, recurrent oral ulceration and the class of immune complexes. Immunology47:581-587.
118.
Lehner T., Lavery E., Smith R., van der Zee R., Mizushima Y., Shinnick T. (1991). Association between the 65-kilo-dalton heat shock protein, Streptococcus sanguis, and the corresponding antibodies in Behçet's syndrome. Infect Immunol59:1434-1441.
119.
Leimola-Virtanen R., Happonen RP, Syrjanen S. (1995). Cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Helicobacter pylori (HP) found in oral mucosal ulcers. J Oral Pathol Med24:14-17.
120.
Lejonc JL, Fourestie V. (1985). Phenelzine in the treatment of aphthous ulcers of the mouth. N Engl J Med312:859.
121.
Levinsky RJ, Lehner T. (1978). Circulating soluble immune complexes in recurrent oral ulceration, and Behçet's syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol32:193-198.
122.
Lindemann RA, Riviere GR, Sapp JP ( 1985). Serum antibody responses to indigenous oral mucosal antigens and selected laboratory-maintained bacteria in recurrent aphthous ulceration. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol59:585-589.
123.
Lunderschmidt C. (1982). Immunologische Aspekt in der pathogenese der oralen Aphthosen. Dtsch Z Mund-Kiefer-Gesichts-Chir6:168-173,
124.
MacPhail LA, Greenspan D., Greenspan JS (1992). Recurrent aphthous ulcers in association with HIV infection Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol73:283-288.
125.
Majorana A., Sapelli PL, Malagoli A., Meini A., Pillan MN, Duse M., et al. (1992). Malattia celiaca e stomatite aftosa ricorrente. Minerva Stomatol41:33-40.
126.
Marshall GS, Edwards KM, Butler J., Lawton AR (1987). Syndrome of periodic fever, pharyngitis and aphthous stomatitits. J Pediatr110:43-46.
127.
Martin DK, Nelms DC, Macler BF, Peavy DC (1979). Lymphoproliferative responses induced by streptococcal antigens in recurrent aphthous stomatitis and Behçet's syndrome. Clin Immunol Immunopathol13:1446-1455,
128.
Mascaro JM, Lecha M., Torras H. (1979). Thalidomide in the treatment of recurrent, necrotic and giant mucocutaneous aphthae and aphthosis. Arch Dermatol115:636-637.
129.
Matthews RW, Scully GM, Levers BGH, Hislop WS (1987). Clinical evaluation of benzydamine, chlorhexidine and placebo mouthwashes in the management of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol63:189-191.
130.
McCartan BE, Sullivan A. (1992). The association of menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause with recurrent oral aphthous stomatitis: A review and critique. Obstet Gynecol80:455-458.
131.
Meini A., Pillan MN, Plebani A., Ugazio AG, Majorana A., Sapelli PL (1993). High prevalence of DRW10 and DQW1 antigens in celiac disease associated with recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Am J Gastroenterol88:972.
132.
Merchant HW, Gangarosa LP, Glassman AB, Sobel RE (1978). Betamethasone-17-benzoate in the treatment of recurrent aphthous ulcers. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol45:870-875.
133.
Merchant NE, Ferguson MM, Ali A., Hole DJ, Gillis CR (1986). The detection of IgA-reticulin antibodies and their incidence in patients with recurrent aphthae. J Oral Med41:31-34.
134.
Miles DA, Bricker SL, Razmus TF, Potter RH (1993). Triamcinolone acetonide versus chlorhexidine for treatment of recurrent stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol75:397-402.
135.
Miller MF, Ship II, Ram C. (1977a). A retrospective study of factors associated with recurrent aphthous ulcers in a professional population. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol43:532-537.
136.
Miller MF, Garfunkel AA, Ram C., Ship II ( 1977b). Inheritance patterns on recurrent aphthous ulcers: twin and pedigree data. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol43:886-891.
137.
Miller MF, Silvert ME, Laster LL, Green P., Ship II ( 1978). Effect of levamisole on the incidence and prevalence of recurrent aphthous stomatitis: a double-blind clinical trial. J Oral Pathol7:387-392.
138.
Miller MF, Garfunkel AA, Ram CA, Ship II ( 1980). The inheritance of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Observations on susceptibility. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol49:409-412.
139.
Mittal R., Chopra A., Handa J. (1985). Sutton's aphthae and Behçet's syndrome. Indian J Dermatol30:17-21.
140.
Mizoguchi M., Matsuki K., Mochizuki M., Minami M., Juji T. ( 1988). Human leukocyte antigen in Sweet's Syndrome and its relationship to Behçet's disease. Arch Dermatol124:1069-1073.
141.
Mizuki N., Ohno S., Sato T., Ishihara M., Miyata S., Nakamura S., et al. (1995). Mieso-satellite polymorphism between the tumour necrosis factor and HLA-B genes in Behçet's disease. Human Immunol43:129-135.
142.
Nicolau DP, West TE ( 1990). Thalidomide: treatment of severe recurrent aphthous stomatitis in patients with AIDS. DICP24:1054-1056.
143.
Nolan A., Mclntosh WB, Allam BF, Lamey PJ (1991). Recurrent aphthous ulceration: vitamin B1, B2 and B6 status and response to replacement therapy. J Oral Path Med20:398-391.
144.
Olsen JA, Silverman S. (1978). Double-blind study of levamisole therapy in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Oral Pathol7:393-399.
145.
Olsen A., Feinberg I., Silverman S., Abrams D., Greenspan JS (1982). Serum vitamin B12, folate, and iron levels in recurrent oral ulceration. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol54:517-520.
146.
Orme RL, Nordlund JJ, Barich L., Brown T. (1990). The MAGIC syndrome (mouth and genital ulcers with inflamed cartilage). Arch Dermatol126:940-944.
147.
Peavy DL, Nelms DC, Mackler BF (1982). Failure of autologous oral epithelia to activate RAS lymphocytes. Clin Immunol Immunopathol22:291-295.
148.
Pedersen A. (1989). Psychologic stress and recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol Med18:119-122.
149.
Pedersen A. (1992). Acyclovir in the prevention of severe aphthous ulcers. Arch Dermatol128:119-120.
150.
Pedersen A. (1993). Recurrent aphthous ulceration: virological and immunological aspects. APMIS37 (Suppl):1-37.
151.
Pedersen A., Hornsleth A. (1993). Recurrent aphthous ulceration: a possible clinical manifestation of reactivation of varicella zoster or cytomegalovirus infection. Oral Pathol Med22:64-68.
152.
Pedersen A., Pedersen BK (1993). Natural killer cell function and number of peripheral blood are not altered in recurrent aphthous ulceration. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol76:16-19.
153.
Pedersen A., Ryder LP (1994). γδ T-cell fraction of peripheral blood is increased in recurrent aphthous ulceration. Clin Immunol Immunopathol72:98-104.
154.
Pedersen A., Klausen B., Hougen HP, Stenvang JP (1989). T-lymphocyte subsets in recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol Med18:59-60.
155.
Pedersen A., Hougen HP, Klausen B., Winther K. (1990a). LongoVital in the prevention of recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol Med19:371-375.
156.
Pedersen A., Klausen B., Hougen HP, Ryder L., Winther K. (1990b). Immunomodulation by LongoVital in patients with recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol Med19:376-380.
157.
Pedersen A., Klausen B., Hougen HP, Ryder LP (1991). Peripheral lymphocyte subpopulations in recurrent aphthous ulceration. Acta Odontol Scand49:203-206.
158.
Pedersen A., Hougen HP, Kenrad B. (1992). T-lymphocyte subsets in oral mucosa of patients with recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol Med21:176-180.
159.
Pedersen A., Madsen HO, Vestergaard B., Ryder LP (1993). Varicella-zoster virus DNA in recurrent aphthous ulcers. Scand J Dent Res101:311-313.
160.
Peretz B. (1994). Major recurrent aphthous stomatitis in an 11 year old girl: case report. J Clin Pediat Dent18:309-311.
161.
Pervin K., Childerston A., Shinnick T., Mizushima Y., van der Zee R., Hasan A., et al. (1993). T cell epitope expression of mycobacterial and homologous human 65-kilodalton heat shock protein peptides in short-term lines from patients with Behçet's disease. J Immunol151:2273-2282.
162.
Pimlott SJ, Walker DM (1983). A controlled clinical trial efficacy of topically applied fluocinonide in the treatment of recurrent aphthous ulceration. Br Dent J154:174-177.
163.
Pizarro A., Navarro A., Fonseca E. (1995). Treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis with pentoxifylline. Br J Dermatol133:659-660.
164.
Pizarro A., Herranz P., Navarro A., Casado M. (1996). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: treatment with pentoxifylline. Acta Derm Venereol76:79-80.
165.
Platz P., Ryder LP, Donatsky O. (1976). No deviations of HLA A and B antigens in patients with recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Tissue Antigens8:279-280.
166.
Pongissawaranun W., Laohapand P. (1991) Epidemiologic study on recurrent aphthous stomatitis in a Thai dental patient population. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol19:52-53.
167.
Porter SR, Scully C. (1991). Aphthous stomatitis-an overview of aetiopathogenesis and management. Clin Exp Dermatol16:235-243.
168.
Porter SR, Scully C. (1993). Orofacial manifestations in primary immunodeficiencies involving IgA deficiency. J Oral Pathol Med22:117-119.
169.
Porter SR, Scully C. (1993). Orofacial manifestations in primary immunodeficiencies: T lymphocyte defects. J Oral Pathol Med22:308-309.
170.
Porter SR, Scully C., Flint SR (1988). Haematological status in recurrent aphthous stomatitis compared with other oral disease. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol66:41-44.
171.
Porter SR, Flint S., Scully C., Keith O. ( 1992a). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: the efficacy of replacement therapy in patients with underlying haematinic deficiencies. Ann Dent51:14-16.
172.
Porter SR, Scully C., Bowden J. (1992b). Immunoglobulin G subclasses in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Oral Pathol Med21:26-27.
173.
Porter SR, Scully C., Luker J., Oakhill A. (1994a). Oral features of a family with benign familial neutropenia. J Am Acad Dermatol30:877-880.
174.
Porter SR, Scully C., Standen GR (1994b). Oral ulceration as a manifestation of autoimmune neutropenia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol78:179-180.
175.
Porter SR, Barker G., Scully C., MacFarlane G., Bain L. ( 1997). Serum IgG antibodies to Helicobacter pylori in patients with recurrent aphthous stomatitis and other oral disorders. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod83:325-328.
176.
Poswillo D., Partridge M. (1984). Management of recurrent Biol Med9 (3).306321 (1998) aphthous ulcers: a trial of carbenoxolone sodium mouthwash. Br Dent J157:55-57.
177.
Potoky JR (1981). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: a proposed therapeutic regimen. J Oral Med36:44-46.
178.
Potts AJC, Frame JW, Bateman JRM, Asquith P. (1984). Sodium cromoglycate toothpaste in the management of aphthous ulceration. Br Dent J156:250-251.
179.
Ratis G., Poccardi G., Scalabrini DR, Pomatto E., Vercellino V. (1991). II linfocitogramma nelle stomatiti aftose ricorrenti Minerva Stomatol40:45-49.
180.
Rattan J., Schneider M., Arber N., Gorsky M., Dayan D. (1994). Sucraflate suspension as a treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Intern Med236:341-343.
181.
Rennie JR, Reade PC, Hay D., Scully C. (1985). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Br Dent J159:361-367.
182.
Revuz J., Guillaume JC, lanier M., Hans P., Marchand C., Souteyrand P., et al. (1990). Crossover study of thalidomide vs placebo in severe recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Arch Dermatol126:923-927.
183.
Rogers RS (1977). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: clinical characteristics and evidence for an immunopathogenesis. J Invest Dermatol69:499-501.
184.
Rogers RS, Hutton KP (1986). Screening for haematinic deficiencies in patients with recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Aust J Derm27:98-103.
Rogers RS, Movius DL, Pierre RV (1976). Lymphocyte-epithelial cell interactions in oral mucosal inflammatory diseases. J Invest Dermatol67:599-602.
187.
Rosenthal SH (1984). Does phenelzine relieve aphthous ulcers of the mouth? N Engl J Med311:1442.
188.
Ross R., Kutscher AH, Zegarelli EV, Silvers H., Piro JD ( 1958). Relationship of mechanical trauma to recurrent ulcerative (aphthae) stomatitis. NY State Dent J24:101-102.
189.
Rothe G., Wutzler P., Spossig M., Farber J. (1978). Zur Atiologie der chronisch rezidivierenden aphthen der Mundschleimhaut. Stomatol DDR28:325-328.
190.
Ruah CB, Stram JR, Chasin WD (1988). Treatment of severe recurrent aphthous stomatitis with colchicine. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg114:671-675.
191.
Sallay K., Banoczy I. (1968). Remarks on the possibilities of the simultaneous occurrence of hyperkeratosis of the mucous membrane and recurrent aphthae. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol25:171-175.
192.
Sallay K., Dan P., Geck P., Kulscar G., Nasz I. ( 1971). Immunofluorescent studies on circulating lymphocytes in oral mucosal diseases. Arch Dermatol Forsch241:15-21
193.
Sallay K., Kulscar G., Nasz I., Dan P., Geck P. ( 1973). Adenovirus isolation from recurrent oral ulcers. J Periodontol44:712-714.
194.
Savage NW, Seymour GJ (1994). Specific lymphocytotoxic destruction of autologous epithelial cell targets in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Aust Dent J39:98-104.
195.
Savage NW, Seymour GJ Kruger BJ (1985). T lymphocyte subset changes in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol60:175-81.
196.
Savage NW, Seymour GJ, Kurger BJ (1986). Expression of class I and class II major histocompatibility complex antigens on epithelial cells in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Oral Pathol15:191-195.
197.
Scaglione F., Falchi M., Bichisao E., Fraschini F. (1985). Flumethasone pivolate (Locorten) in the treatment of oral diseases. Drug Exp Clin Res11:523-526.
Schroeder HR, Miller-Glauser W., Sallay K. (1984). Pathomorphologic features of the ulcerative stage of oral aphthous ulceration. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol58:293-305.
200.
Schulkind ML, Heim LR, South MA, Jeter WS, Small PA (1984). A case report of the successful treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis with some preparations of orally administered transfer factor. Cell Immunol84:415-421.
201.
Scully C. (1982). Serum β2 microglobulin in recurrent aphthous stomatitis and Behçet's syndrome. Clin Exp Dermatol7:269-275.
202.
Scully C. (1993). Are viruses associated with aphthae and oral vesiculo erosive disorders. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg31:173-177.
203.
Scully C., Porter S. (1989). Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: current concepts of aetiology, pathogenesis and management. J Oral Pathol Med18:21-27.
204.
Scully C., Porter SR (1993a). Orofacial manifestations in primary immunodeficiencies: common variable immunodeficiency. J Oral Pathol Med22:157-158.
205.
Scully C., Porter SR (1993b). Orofacial manifestations in primary immunodeficiencies: polymorphonuclear leukocyte defects. ) Oral Pathol Med22:310-311.
206.
Scully C., MacFadyen EE, Campbell A. (1982). Orofacial manifestations in cyclic neutropenia. Br J Oral Surg20:96-101.
207.
Scully C., Yap L., Boyle P. (1983). IgE and IgD concentrations in patients with recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Arch Dermatol119:31-34.
208.
Segal AL, Katcher AH, Brightman K.), Miller MF (1974). Recurrent herpes labialis, recurrent aphthous ulcers, and the menstrual cycle. J Dent Res53:797-803.
209.
Shapiro S., Olsson DL, Chellemi SJ (1970). The association between smoking and aphthous ulcers. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol30:624-630.
210.
Ship II ( 1965). Inheritance of aphthous ulcers of the mouth. J Dent Res44:837-844.
211.
Ship II ( 1972). Epidemiological aspects of recurrent aphthous ulcerations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol33:400-406.
212.
Ship II, Ashe WK, Scherp HW (1961a). Recurrent "fever blister" and "canker sore". Tests for herpes simplex and other viruses with mammalian cell cultures. Arch Oral Biol3:117-124.
213.
Ship II, Morris AL, Durocher RT, Burket LW (1961b). Recurrent aphthous ulceration in a professional school student population. IV. Twelve month study of natural disease patterns. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol14:30-39.
214.
Ship II, Brightman VJ, Laster LL (1967). The patient with recurrent aphthous ulcers and the patient with recurrent herpes labialis: a study of two population samples. J Am Dent Assoc75:645-654.
215.
Shohat-Zabarski R., Kalderon S., Klein T., Weinberger A., Tikha P., Aviv R. ( 1982). Close association of HLA-B51 in persons with recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol74:455-458.
216.
Sircus W., Church R., Kelleher J. (1957). Recurrent aphthous ulceration of the mouth. Q J Med26:235-249.
217.
Spouge JD, Diamond HF (1963). Hypersensitivity reactions in mucous membranes. 1. The statistical relationship between hypersensitivity diseases and recurrent oral ulcerations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol16:412-421.
Studd M., McCance DJ, Lehner T. (1991). Detection of HSV-I DNA in patients with Behçet's syndrome and in patients with recurrent oral ulcers by the polymerase chain reaction. J Med Microbiol34:39-43.
220.
Sun A., Wu Y-C., Hsieh R.-P., Kwan H.-W., Lu Y-C. (1987). Changes of T-lymphocyte subsets in recurrent aphthous ulcers. J Formosan Med Assoc86:718-722.
221.
Sun A., Chu C.-T., Wu Y-C., Yuan JH ( 1991). Mechanisms of depressed natural killer cell activity in recurrent aphthous ulcers. Clin Immunol Immunopathol60:83-92.
222.
Sun A., Chiang C.-P., Chiou P.-S., Wang J.-T., Liu B.-Y., Wu Y-C. ( 1994). Immunomodulation by levamisole in patients with recurrent aphthous ulcers or oral lichen planus. J Oral Pathol Med23:172-177.
223.
Suzuki Y., Hoshi K., Matsuda T., Mizushima Y. (1990). Increased peripheral blood γδ + T cells and natural killer cells in Behçet's disease. J Rheumatol19:588-592.
224.
Taylor LI, Walker DM, Bagg J. ( 1993). A clinical trial of prostaglandin E2 in recurrent aphthous ulceration. Br Dent J175:125-129.
225.
Thomas DW, Bagg I., Walker DM (1990). Characterisation of the effector cells responsible for the in vitro cytotoxicity of blood leukocytes from aphthous ulcer patients for oral epithelial cells. Gut31:294-299.
226.
Tuft L., Ettleson LN (1956). Canker sores from allergy to weak organic acids (citric and acetic). J Allergy27:536-543.
227.
Tyldesley WR (1983). Stomatitis and recurrent oral ulceration: is a full blood screen necessary? Br J Oral Surg2127-30.
228.
Ueta E., Umazume M., Yamamoto T., Osaki T. (1993). Leukocyte dysfunction in oral mucous membrane diseases. J Oral Pathol Med22:120-125.
229.
Ueta E., Osaki T., Yoneda K., Yamamoto T., Kato I. ( 1994). A clinical trial of Azelastine in recurrent aphthous ulceration, with an analysis of its actions on leukocytes. J Oral Pathol Med23:123-129.
230.
Ullman S., Gorlin R.) (1978). Recurrent aphthous stomatititis: an immunofluorescent study. Arch Dermatol14:955-956.
231.
Velso FT, Saleiro JV (1987). Small-bowel changes in recurrent ulceration of the mouth. Hepatogastroenterology34:36-37.
232.
Verdickt GM, Savage NW, Dodd NM, Walsh LJ (1992). Expression of the CD54 (ICAM-1) and CD11a (LFA-1) adhesion molecules in oral mucosal inflammation. J Oral Pathol Med21:65-69.
233.
von den Driesch P., Schlegel GR, Kiesewetter F., Hornstein OP (1989). Sweet's syndrome: clinical spectrum and associated conditions. Cutis44:193-200.
234.
von den Driesch P., Gomez RS, Kiesewetter F., Hornstein OP (1994). Sweet's syndrome (acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis). J Am Acad Dermatol31:535-559.
235.
Wahba-Yahav AV (1995a). Severe idiopathic recurrent aphthous stomatitis: treatment with pentoxifylline. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh)75:157.
236.
Wahba-Yahav AV (1995b). Pentoxifylline in intractable recurrent aphthous stomatitis: An open trial. I Am Acad Dermatol33:680-682.
237.
Williams I., Weller IVD, Malin A., Andersen J., Waters MFR (1991). Thalidomide hypersensitivity in AIDS. Lancet337:436-437.
238.
Wilson CWM (1980). Food sensitivities, taste changes, aphthous ulcers and atopic symptoms in allergic disease. Ann Allergy44:302-307.
239.
Wormser GP, Mack L., Lenox T., Hewlett D., Goldfarb J., Yarrish RL, et al. (1988). Lack of effect of oral acyclovir on prevention of aphthous stomatitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg98:14-17.
Wray D. ( 1982). A double-blind trial of systemic zinc sulfate in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol53:469-72.
242.
Wray D., Ferguson MM, Mason DK, Hutcheon AW, Dagg JH ( 1975). Recurrent aphthae: treatment with vitamin B12, folic acid and iron. Br Med J2:490-493.
243.
Wray D., Graykowski EA, Notkins AL (1981). Role of mucosal injury in initiating recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Br Med J283:1569-1570.
244.
Wray D., Vlagopoulos TP, Siraganian RP (1982). Food allergens and basophil histamine release in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol54:388-395.
245.
Wright A., Ryan FP, Willingham SE, Holt S., Page A., Hindle MO, et al. (1986). Food allergy or intolerance in severe recurrent aphthous ulceration of the mouth. Br Med J292:1237-1238.
246.
Yaacob HB, Ab Hamid J. (1985). Use of antidepressants in aphthous ulceration-a clinical experience. Dent J Malays8:33-38.
247.
Yamamoto T., Yoneda K., Ueta E., Osaki T. (1994). Serum cytokines, interleukin-2 receptor, and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in oral disorders. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol78:727-735.
248.
Yasim K., Ohta K., Kobayashi M., Aizania T., Komiyama H. (1996). Successful treatment of Behçet's disease with pentoxifylline. Ann Intern Med124:891-893.
249.
Yel L., Tezcan I., Hasturk H., Ersoy F., Sanal O., Yavazyilmaz E. (1994). Oral findings, treatment and follow-up of a case with major aphthous stomatitis (Sutton's disease). J Clin Pediat Dent1:49-53.
250.
Yeoman CM, Greenspan JS, Harding SM (1978). Recurrent oral ulceration. A double-blind comparison of treatment of betamethasone valerate aerosol and placebo. Br Dent J144:114-116.
251.
Zegarelli EV, Kutscher AH, Silver HF, Beube FE, Stern IB, Berman CL, et al. (1960). Triamcinoline acetonide in the treatment of acute and chronic lesions of the oral mucous membranes. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol13:170-175.
