In the U.S. oral cancer accounts for 2.1% of all cancers and 1% of cancer deaths. Two to three times as many males as females are affected. Blacks have more intra-oral cancer than whites, and their incidence and mortality rates have increased in recent years. The etiologic process very likely involves several factors. The major etiologic agents are tobacco (all types) and alcoholic beverages. Herpes simplex virus, human papilloma virus, and Candida have been implicated. Host factors include poor state of dentition, nutritional aberrations, cirrhosis of liver, lichen planus, and immunologic impairmant. Cellular changes include amplification of some oncogenes, alterations in antigen expression, production of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, and disturbance of keratin and involucrin production. Experimentally, cancer is readily produced on the hamster cheek pouch and rat oral mucosa. Unlike oral cancer in humans, most experimental lesions are exophytic, and they rarely metastasize.
References
1.
Shafer, W.G., Hine, M.K., and Levy, B.M., A Textbook of Oral Pathology, 4th ed., W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1984, chap. 2.
2.
Regezi, J.A. and Sciubba, J.J., Oral Pathology, W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1989, 70.
3.
Annual Cancer Statistics Review, Including Cancer Trends: 1980-1985, Department Health Human Services, N.I.H., Washington, D.C., 1988.
4.
Silverberg, E. and Lubera, J.A., Cancer statistics, 1989, Ca, 39, 3, 1989.
5.
Szpak, C.A., Stone, C.J., and Frankel, E.P., Some observations concerning the demographic and geographic incidence of carcinoma of the lip and buccal cavity, Cancer, 40, 343, 1977.
6.
Lindqvist, C. and Teppo, L., Epidemiologic evaluation of sunlight as a risk factor of lip cancer, Br. J. Cancer, 37, 983, 1978.
7.
Mashberg, A. and Meyers, H., Anatomical site and size of 222 early asymptomatic oral squamous cell carcinomas, Cancer, 37, 2149, 1976.
8.
Cancer Statistics, Registration, 1984, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1988.
9.
Sanghavi, L.C., Epidemiologic and intervention studies. Screening: cancer epidemiology: the Indian scene, J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol., 9, 1, 1981.
10.
Muir, C., Waterhouse, J., Mack, T. et al., Eds., Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, Vol. 5, IARC Sci. Publ. No. 88, International Agency of Research on Cancer, Lyon, 1987.
11.
Riggan, W.B., Acquavella, J.F., and Mason, T.J., U.S. Cancer Mortality Rates and Trends, 1950-1979, Vol. 1, N.C.I./E.P.A. Inter-agency Agreement on Environmental Carcinogenesis, Washington, D.C., 1983.
12.
Kurihara, M., Aoki, K., and Tominaga, S., Eds., Cancer Mortality Statistics in the World, University of Nagoya Press, 1984.
13.
Page, H.S. and Asire, A.J., Cancer Rates and Risks, 3rd ed., N.I.H. Publ. 85-691, Washington, D.C., 1985.
14.
Black, R.J., Gluckman, J.L., and Shumrick, D.A., Multiple primary tumors of the upper aerodigestive tract, Clin. Otolaryngol., 8, 277, 1983.
15.
Gluckman, J.L. and Crissman, J.D., Patients with multiple neoplasms of the upper aerodigestive tract, Laryngoscope, 93, 71, 1983.
16.
Fitzpatrick, P.J., Tepperman, B.S., and DeBoer, G., Multiple primary squamous cell carcinomas in the upper aerodigestive tract, Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys., 10, 2273, 1984.
17.
Hordijk, G.J. and Dejong, M.A., Synchronous and metachronous tumors in patients with head and neck cancer, J. Laryngol. Otol., 37, 619, 1983.
18.
Tepperman, B.S. and Fitzpatrick, P.J., Second respiratory and upper digestive tract cancers after oral cancer, Lancet, 2, 547, 1981.
19.
Incze, J., Vaughan, C.W., Jr., Lui, P. et al., Premalignant changes in normal appearing epithelium in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract, Am. J. Surg., 144, 401, 1982.
20.
Blot, W.J., McLaughlin, J.K., Winn, D.M. et al., Smoking and drinking in relation to oral and pharyngeal cancer, Cancer Res., 48, 3282, 1988.
21.
Wynder, E.L. and Stellman, S.D., Comparative epidemiology of tobacco related cancers, Cancer Res., 37, 4608, 1977.
22.
Johnston, W.D. and Ballantyne, A.J., Prognostic effect of tobacco and alcohol use in patients with oral tongue cancer, Am. J. Surg., 134, 444, 1977.
23.
Wynder, E.L., Mushinski, M.H., and Spivak, J.C., Tobacco and alcohol consumption in relation to the development of multiple primary cancers, Cancer, 40, 1872, 1977.
24.
Graham, S., Dayal, H., Roher, T. et al., Dentition, diet, tobacco, and alcohol in the epidemiology of oral cancer, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 59, 1611, 1977.
25.
Blitzer, P.H., Epidemiology of head and neck cancer, Sem. Oncol., 15, 2, 1988.
26.
Pindborg, J.J., Mehta, F.S., Gupta, P.C. et al., Reverse smoking in Andhra Pradesh, India: a study of palatal lesions among 10,169 villagers, Br. J. Cancer, 25, 10, 1971.
27.
Moore, C., Smoking and cancer of the mouth, pharynx and larynx, JAMA, 191, 283, 1965.
28.
Silverman, S., Jr. and Griffith, M., Smoking characteristics of patients with oral carcinoma and the risk for second oral primary carcinoma, J. Am. Dent. Assoc., 85, 637, 1972.
29.
Lyon, J.L., Klauber, M.R., Gardner, J.W., and Smart, C.R., Cancer incidence in Mormons and non-Mormons in Utah 1966-1970, N. Engl. J. Med., 294, 129, 1976.
30.
Enstrom, J.E., Cancer mortality among low risk populations, Ca, 29, 352, 1979.
31.
Binnie, W.H., Rankin, K.V., and Mackenzie, I.C., Etiology of oral squamous cell carcinoma, J. Oral Pathol., 12, 11, 1983.
32.
Winn, D.W., Tobacco chewing and snuff dipping: an association with human cancer, in N-Nitroso Compounds: Occurrence, Biological Effects and Relevance to Human Cancer, O'Neil, I. K., VonBorstel, R. C.. Miller, C. T. et al., Eds., IARC Sci. Publ. No. 57, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, 1984, 837.
33.
Winn, D.W., Blot, W.J., Shy, C.M. et al., Snuff dipping and oral cancer among women in the southern United States, N. Engl. J. Med., 304, 745, 1981.
34.
Axell, T., Mornstad, H., and Sundstrom, B., Snunsning och munhalecancer-en retrospektiv studie, Lakartidningen, 75, 2224, 1978.
35.
Wahi, P.N., The epidemiology of oral and oropharyngeal cancer, Bull. WHO, 38, 495, 1968.
36.
Zaridze, D.G., Blettner, M., Trapesnikov, N.N. et al., Survey of a population with a high incidence of oral and oesophageal cancer, Int. J. Cancer, 36, 153, 1985.
37.
Salem, G., Juhl, R., and Schiodt, T., Oral malignant and premalignant changes in "shammah" users from the Gizan region, Saudi Arabia, Acta Odontol. Scand., 42, 41, 1984.
38.
Squier, C.A., Introduction: proceedings of a symposium on the health effects of smokeless tobacco, Ca, 38, 224, 1988.
39.
Christen, A.G. and McDonald, J.L., Smokeless tobacco country: from nicotine dependency to oral problems and cancer, Aviat. Space Environ. Med., 58, 97, 1987.
40.
Autrup, H., Seremet, T., Arenholt, D. et al., Metabolism of benzo[a]pyrene by cultured rat and human buccal mucosa cells, Carcinogenesis, 6, 1761, 1985.
41.
Tuyns, A.J., Epidemiology of alcohol and cancer, Cancer Res., 39, 2840, 1979.
42.
Mashberg, A., Garfinkel, L., and Harris, S., Alcohol as a primary risk factor in oral squamous carcinoma, Ca, 31, 146, 1981.
43.
Keller, A.Z., Alcohol and tobacco use among cirrhotic and non-cirrhotic males with cancer, Prog. Clin. Biol. Res., 53, 213, 1981.
44.
Schottenfeld, D., Alcohol as a cofactor in the etiology of cancer, cancer4319621979
45.
Wynder, E.L., Bross, I.J., and Feldman, R.M., A study of the etiological factors in cancer of the mouth, Cancer, 10, 1300, 1957.
46.
Bross, I.D.J. and Combs, J., Early onset of oral cancer among women who drink and smoke, Oncology, 33, 136, 1976.
47.
Smith, E.M., An analysis of cohort mortality from tongue cancer in Japan, England and Wales and the United States, Int. J. Epidemiol., 11, 329, 1982.
48.
Naib, Z.M., Nahmias, A.J., Josey, W.E. et al., Genital herpetic infection, association with cervical dysplasia and carcinoma, Cancer, 23, 940, 1969.
49.
Josey, W.E., Nahmias, A.J., and Naib, Z.M., Genital infection with type 2 herpesvirus hominis, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 101, 718, 1968.
50.
Nahmias, A.J., Naib, Z.M., Josey, W.E. et al., Prospective studies on the association of genital herpes simplex infection and cervical anaplasia, Cancer Res., 33, 1491, 1973.
51.
Duff, R. and Rapp, F., Oncogenic transformation of hamster embryo cells after exposure to inactivated herpes simplex virus type 1, J. Virol., 12, 209, 1973.
52.
Rapp, F. and Shillitoe, E.J., Transformation of non-lymphoid cells by herpesviruses: a review, in Oncogenesis and Herpesviruses III, deThe, G., Henle, W., and Rapp, F., Eds., IARC Sci. Publ. No. 24, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, 1978, 431.
53.
Silverman, N.A., Alexander, J.C., Hollinshead, A.C. et al., Correlation of tumor burden with in vitro lymphocyte reactivity and antibodies to herpesvirus tumor-associated antigens in head and neck squamous carcinoma, Cancer, 37, 135, 1976.
54.
Shillitoe, E.J., Greenspan, D., Greenspan, J.S. et al., Neutralizing antibody to herpes simplex virus type 1 in patients with oral cancer, Cancer, 49, 2315, 1982.
55.
Eskinazi, D.P., Oncogenic potential of sexually transmitted viruses with special reference to oral cancer, Oral Surg., 64, 35, 1987.
56.
Kassim, K.H. and Daley, T.D., Herpes simplex virus in human oral squamous cell carcinoma, Oral Surg., 65, 445, 1988.
57.
Scully, C., Viruses and cancer: herpesviruses and tumors in the head and neck, Oral Surg., 56, 285, 1983.
58.
Eglin, R.P., Detection of RNA complementary to herpes simplex virus in human oral squamous cell carcinoma, Lancet, 2, 766, 1983.
59.
Park, N.H., Sapp, J.P., and Herbosa, E.G., Oral cancer induced in hamsters with herpes simplex infection and simulated snuff dipping, Oral Surg., 62, 164, 1986.
60.
Southam, C.M., Tanaka, S., Arata, T. et al., Enhancement of responses to chemical carcinogens by nononcogenic viruses and antimetabolites, Prog. Exp. Tumor Res., 11, 194, 1969.
61.
ZurHausen, H., Papillomaviruses in human cancer, Appl. Pathol., 5, 19, 1987.
62.
Syrjanen, K., Syrjanen, S., Lamberg, M. et al., Morphological and immunohistochemical evidence suggesting human papillomavirus (HPV) involvement in oral squamous cell carcinogenesis, Int. J. Oral Surg., 12, 418, 1983.
63.
Eisenberg, E., Rosenberg, B., and Krutchkoff, D.J., Verrucous carcinoma: a possible viral pathogenesis, Oral Surg., 59, 52, 1985.
64.
Loning, T., Meichsner, M., Milde-Langosch, K. et al., HPV DNA detection in tumors of the head and neck: a comparative light microscopy and DNA hybridization study, ORL(Basel), 49, 259, 1987.
65.
Gassenmaier, A. and Hornstein, O.P., Presence of human papillomavirus DNA in benign and precancerous oral leukoplakias and squamous cell carcinomas, Dermatologica, 176, 224, 1988.
66.
DeVilliers, E.M., Weidauer, H., Otto, H. et al., Papillomavirus DNA in human tongue carcinomas, Int. J. Cancer, 36, 575, 1985.
67.
Loning, T., Ikenberg, H., Becker, J. et al., Analysis of oral papillomas, leukoplakias, and invasive carcinomas for human papillomavirus type related DNA, J. Invest. Dermatol., 84, 417, 1985.
68.
Scully, C., Maitland, N.J., Cox, M.F., and Prime, S.S., Human papillomavirus DNA and oral mucosa, Lancet, 1, 336, 1987.
69.
Pirisi, L., Yasumoto, S., Feller, M. et al., Transformation of human fibroblasts and keratinocytes with human papillomavirus type 16 DNA, J. Virol., 61, 1061, 1987.
70.
Maitland, N.J., Cos, M.F., Lynas, C. et al., Detection of human papillomavirus DNA in biopsies of human oral tissue, Br. J. Cancer, 56, 245, 1987.
71.
Hornstein, O.P., Grabel, T., Schirner, E. et al., Orale candidabesiedlung bei leukoplakien und karzinomen der mundhohle, Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr., 104, 1033, 1979.
72.
Banoczy, J., Follow up studies in oral leukoplakia, J. Maxillofac. Surg., 5, 69, 1977.
73.
Cawson, R.A. and Binnie, W.H., Candida leukoplakia and carcinoma: a possible relationship, in Oral Premalignancy, Mackenzie, I. C., Dabelsteen, E., and Squier, C. A., Eds., University of Iowa Press, Iowa City, 1980, chap. 5.
74.
Renstrup, G., Occurrence of Candida in oral leukoplakias, Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sec. B, 78, 421, 1970.
75.
Krogh, P., Hald, B., and Holmstrup, P., Possible mycological etiology of oral mucosal cancer: catalytic potential of infecting Candida albicans and other yeasts in production of N-nitrosobenzylmethylamine, Carcinogenesis, 8, 1543, 1987.
76.
Thumfart, W., Weidenbecher, M., Waller, G. et al., Chronic mechanical trauma in the aetiology of oropharyngeal carcinoma, J. Maxillofac. Surg., 6, 217, 1978.
77.
Graham, S., Levin, M., and Lilienfeld, A.M., The socioeconomic distribution of cancer of various sites in Buffalo, N.Y. 1948-1952, Cancer, 13, 180, 1960.
78.
Marshall, J., Graham, S., Mettlin, C. et al., Diet in the epidemiology of oral cancer, Nutr. Cancer, 3, 145, 1982.
79.
Winn, D.M., Zielgler, R.G., Pickle, L.W. et al., Diet in the etiology of oral and pharyngeal cancer among women from the southern United States, Cancer Res., 44, 1216, 1984.
80.
McLaughlin, J.K., Gridley, G., Block, G. et al., Dietary factors in oral and pharyngeal cancer, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 80, 1237, 1988.
81.
Binnie, W.H., Epidemiology and etiology of oral cancer in Britain, Proc. R. Soc. Med., 69, 737, 1976.
82.
Varghese, I., Sugathan, C.K., Balasurbramoniyan, G. et al., Serum copper and zinc levels in premalignant and malignant lesions of the oral cavity, Oncology, 44, 224, 1987.
83.
McClain, S.S. and Su, L.C., Zinc deficiency in the alcoholic: a review, Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res., 7, 5, 1983.
84.
Lieber, C.S., Garro, A., and Gordon, G.G., Alcohol as a mutagen, carcinogen, and teratogen, in Medical Disorders of Alcoholism: Pathogenesis and Treatment, Smith, L. H., Jr., Ed., W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1982, chap. 13.
85.
McCoy, G.D., A biochemical approach to the etiology of alcohol related cancers of the head and neck, Laryngoscope, 88(Suppl. 8), 59, 1978.
86.
Kruthchkoff, D.J., Cutler, L., and Laskowski, S., Oral lichen planus: the evidence regarding potential malignant transformation, J. Oral Pathol., 7, 1, 1978.
87.
LaVelle, C.L.B., A study in the differential diagnosis of white lesions of the buccal mucosa, J. Oral Med., 38, 135, 1983.
88.
Silverman, S., Jr., Gorsky, M., and Lozada-Nur, F., A prospective follow up study of 570 patients with oral lichen planus: persistence, remission, and malignant association, Oral Surg., 60, 30, 1985.
89.
Holmstrup, P., Thorn, J.J., Rindum, J. et al., Malignant development of lichen planus affected oral mucosa, J. Oral Pathol., 17, 219, 1988.
90.
Newbill, E.T. and Johns, M.E., Immunology of head and neck cancers, CRC Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci., 19, 1, 1983.
91.
Scully, C., Immunology and oral cancer, Br. J. Oral Surg., 21, 136, 1983.
92.
Silverman, S., Jr., Migliorati, C.A., Lozada-Nur, F. et al., Oral findings in people with or at high risk for AIDS: a study of 375 homosexual males, J. Am. Dent. Assoc., 112, 187, 1986.
93.
Loning, T. and Burkhardt, A., Plasma cells and immunoglobulin synthesis in oral precancer and cancer, Virchows Arch. A, 384, 109, 1979.
94.
Lichenstein, A., Zighelboim, J., Dorey, F. et al., Comparison of immune derangements in patients with different malignancies, Cancer, 45, 2090, 1980.
95.
Wolf, G.T., Lovett, E.J., III, Peterson, K.A. et al., Lymphokine production and lymphocyte subpopulations in patients with head and neck squamous carcinoma, Arch. Otolaryngol., 110, 731, 1984.
96.
Eskinazi, D.P., Helman, J., Ershow, A.G. et al., Nonspecific immunity and head and neck cancer: blastegenesis reviewed and revisited, Oral Surg., 60, 642, 1985.
97.
Wolf, G.T., Schmaltz, S., Hudson, J. et al., Alterations in T-lymphocyte subpopulations in patients with head and neck cancer, Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg., 113, 1200, 1987.
98.
Saranath, D., Panchal, R.G., Nair, R. et al., Oncongene amplification in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity, Jpn. J. Cancer Res., 80, 430, 1989.
99.
Kamata, V., Chida, K., Rikimaru, K. et al., Growth-inhibitory effects of epidermal growth factor and over expression of its receptors on human squamous cell carcinoma in culture, Cancer Res., 46, 1648, 1986.
100.
Wong, D.T.W. and Biswas, D.K., Expression of c-erb B oncogene during dimethylbenzanthracene induced tumorigenesis in hamster cheek pouch, Oncogene, 2, 67, 1988.
101.
Hollering, J. and Shuler, C.F., Localization of H-ras mRNA in oral squamous cell carcinomas in culture, J. Oral Pathol. Oral Med., 18, 74, 1989.
102.
Dabelsteen, E. and Pindborg, J.J., Loss of epithelial blood group substance A in oral carcinoma, Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand., 81A, 435, 1973.
103.
Dabelsteen, E. and Mackenzie, I.C., Expression of Ricinus communis receptors on epithelial cells in oral carcinomas and oral wounds, Cancer Res., 38, 4676, 1978.
104.
Bovopoulou, O., Sklavounou, A., and Laskaris, G., Loss of intercellular substance antigens in oral hyperkeratosis, epithelial dysplasia and squamous cell carcinoma, Oral Surg., 60, 648, 1985.
105.
Scully, C., Lesional B2 microglobin in oral squamous carcinoma and preneoplastic lesions, Dis. Markers, 1, 43, 1983.
106.
Auclair, P.L., Altered H-antigen reactivity as an early indicator of malignant transformation in oral epithelium, J. Oral Pathol., 13, 401, 1984.
107.
Sloane, J.P., Ormerod, M.G., Carter, R.L. et al., An immunocytochemical study of the distribution of epithelial membrane antigen in normal and disordered squamous epithelium, Diagn. Histopathol., 5, 11, 1982.
108.
Tatemoto, Y., Saka, M., Tanimura, T., and Mori, M., Immunohistochemical observations on binding of monoclonal antibodies to epithelial membrane antigen in epithelial tumors of the oral cavity and skin, Oral Surg., 64, 721, 1987.
109.
Fernandez, B., Lund, J., and Meyers, F., Epithelial membrane antigen expression in benign and malignant squamous epithelium of the head and neck, Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg., 97, 288, 1987.
110.
Toto, P.D., Flourescent antibody detection of CEA in oral squamous carcinoma, J. Oral Med., 34, 45, 1979.
111.
Shabana, A.H.M., Ivanyi, L., and Kramer, I.R.H., Expression of the CA1 determinant by carcinomas and by non-malignant epithelial cells in oral lesions, Br. J. Cancer, 48, 527, 1983.
112.
Fiala, S., Trout, E.C., Jr., Teague, C.A., and Fiala, E.S., Gamma-glutamyl transferase, a common marker of human epithelial tumors?, Cancer Detect. Prev., 3, 471, 1980.
113.
Calderon-Solt, L. and Solt, D.B., Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase in precancerous lesions and carcinomas of oral, pharyngeal and laryngeal mucosa, Cancer, 56, 138, 1985.
114.
Mock, D., Whitestone, B., and Freeman, J., Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase activity in human oral squamous cell carcinoma, Oral Surg., 64, 197. 1987.
115.
Fuchs, E. and Green, H., Multiple keratins of cultured human epidermal cells are translated from different mRNA molecules, Cell, 17, 573, 1979.
116.
Loning, T., Statequet, M.-J., Thivolet, J., and Siefert, G., Keratin polypeptides distribution in normal and diseased human epidermis and oral mucosa, Virchows Arch. A, 388, 273, 1980.
117.
Reibel, J., Clausen, H., and Dabelsteen, E., Staining patterns of human pre-malignant oral epithelium and squamous cell carcinoma by monoclonal anti-keratin antibodies, Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Immunol. Scand. A, 93, 323, 1985.
118.
Nakai, M. and Mori, M., Immunohistochemical distribution of monoclonal antibodies against keratin in papillomas and carcinomas from oral and pharyngeal regions, Oral Surg., 62, 292, 1986.
119.
Watt, F.M., Involucrin and other markers of keratinocyte terminal differentiation, J. Invest. Dermatol., 81(Suppl. 1), 100s, 1983.
120.
Itoiz, M.E., Conti, C.J., Giminez, I.B. et al., Immunodetection of involucrin in lesions of oral mucosa, J. Oral Pathol., 15, 205, 1986.
121.
Sumitomo, S., Kumasa, S., Iwai, Y., and Mori, M., Involucrin expression in epithelial tumors of oral and pharyngeal mucosa and skin, Oral Surg., 62, 155, 1986.
122.
Chen, S.-Y. and Harwick, R.D., Ultrastructure of oral squamous cell carcinoma, Oral Surg., 44, 744, 1977.
123.
Frithiof, L., Cytoplasmic processes in normal and in malignant oral epithelium, Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockholm), 74, 212, 1972.
124.
Matravers, J. and Tyldesley, W.R., Scanning electron microscopy of oral epithelial cells. I. Normal and malignant tissue, Br. J. Oral Surg., 15, 193, 1978.
125.
Frithiof, L., Electron-microscopic observations on structures related to the epithelial basement membrane in squamous cell carcinoma, Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockholm), 73, 323, 1972.
126.
McKinney, R.V. and Singh, B.B., Basement membrane changes under neoplastic oral mucous membrane, Oral Surg., 44, 875, 1977.
127.
White, F.H., Gohari, K., and Smith, C.J., Histological and ultrastructural morphology of 7,12 dimethylbenz-[a]-anthracene carcinogenesis in hamster cheek pouch epithelium, Diag. Histopathol., 4, 307, 1981.
128.
Salley, J., Experimental carcinogenesis in the cheek pouch of the Syrian hamster, J. Dent. Res., 33, 253, 1954.
129.
, Perkins, T.M. and Shklar, G., Delay in hamster pouch carcinogenesis by aspirin and indomethacin, Oral Surg., 53, 170, 1982.
130.
Levy, B.M., The effect of a chemical carcinogen (20-methylcholanthrene) on the oral tissues: a preliminary report, Oral Surg., 1, 582, 1948.
131.
Fujino, H., Chino, T., and Imai, T., Experimental production of labial and lingual carcinoma by local application of 4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 35, 907, 1965.
132.
Wallenius, K., Experimental oral cancer in the rat, Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand., Suppl. 180, 1966.
133.
Yamamura, T., Nishida, Y., Eda, S. et al., An experimental study of intraoral cancer in rats, Oral Surg., 39, 87, 1975.
134.
Ohne, M., Omori, K., Kobayashi, A. et al., Induction of squamous cell carcinoma in the oral cavity of rats by oral administration of 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (4NQO) in drinking water, Bull. Tokyo Det. Coll., 22. 85, 1981.
135.
Buckley, P., Hulse, E.V., and Keep, B.M., An inbred strain of rats with a high incidence of squamous cell carcinomas of the mouth, Br. J. Cancer, 41, 295, 1980.
136.
Chen, S.-Y., Histodifferentiation and ultrastructure of oral squamous cell carcinoma in HMT rats, J. Oral Pathol., 15, 146, 1986.
137.
Squier, C.A., Penetration of nicotine and nitrosonomicotine across porcine oral mucosa, J. Appl. Toxicol., 6, 123, 1986.
138.
Cohen, B. and Smith, C.J., Aetiological factors in oral cancer: experimental investigation of early epithelial changes, Helv. Odontol. Acta, 11, 112, 1967.
139.
Salley, J.J. and Kreshover, S.J., The effect of topical application of carcinogens on palatal mucosa of the hamster, Oral Surg., 12, 501, 1959.
140.
Al-Ani, S. and Shklar, G., Effects of chemical carcinogen applied to hamster gingiva, J. Periodontol., 37, 36, 1966.
141.
Fujita, K., Kaku, T., Sasaki, M., and Onoe, T., Experimental production of lingual carcinomas in hamsters by local application of 9,10-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene, J. Dent. Res., 52, 327, 1973.
142.
Solt, D.B., Polverini, P.J., and Calderon, L., Carcinogenic response of hamster buccal pouch epithelium to 4 polycyclic hydrocarbons, J. Oral Pathol., 16, 294, 1987.
143.
Lurie, A.G., Rozenski, D.L., and Coghill, J.E., DNA adduct formation by 7,12-dimentylbenz(a)anthracene in Syrian hamster cheek pouch epithelium in vivo, Cancer Res., 48, 2025, 1988.
144.
Giunta, J.L. and Shklar, G., Studies on tongue carcinogenesis in rats using DMBA with and without cyanoacrylate adhesive, Arch. Oral Biol., 17, 617, 1972.
145.
Wallenius, K. and Lekholm, U., Oral cancer in rats induced by watersoluble carcinogen 4-nitrochinoline N-oxide, Odontol. Revy, 24, 39, 1973.
146.
Solt, D.B., Calderon-Solt, L., and Odajima, T., Rapid induction of carcinomas and gamma-glutyamyl-transpeptidase-rich clones in N-methyl-N-benzylnitrosamine treated hamster buccal pouch, J. Natl. Cancer lnst., 74, 437, 1985.
147.
Hecht, S.S., Rivenson, A., Braley, J. et al., Induction of oral cavity tumors in F344 rats by tobacco-specific nitrosamines and snuff, Cancer Res., 46, 4162, 1986.
148.
Edwards, M.B., Some effects of N-methylnitrosourea on the oral and odontogenic tissues of the Syrian golden hamster, Arch. Oral Biol., 23, 515, 1978.
149.
Kreshover, S.J. and Salley, J.J., Predisposing factors in oral cancer, J. Am. Dent. Assoc., 54, 509, 1957.
150.
Renstrup, G., Smulow, J.B., and Glickman, I., Effect of chronic mechanical irritation on chemically induced carcinogenesis in the hamster cheek pouch, J. Am. Dent. Assoc., 64, 770, 1962.
151.
Marefat, P. and Shklar, G., Experimental production of lingual leukoplakia and carcinoma, Oral Sug., 44, 578, 1977.
152.
Salley, J.J., Eshleman, J.R., and Morgan, J.H., Effect of chronic thiamine deficiency on oral carcinogenesis, J. Dent. Res., 41, 1405, 1962.
153.
Polliak, A., Charuzy, I., and Levij, I.S., The effect of oestrogen on 9,10-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene(DMBA)-induced cheek pouch carcinoma in castrated and non-castrated male Syrian golden hamsters, Br. J. Cancer, 23, 781, 1969.
154.
Prime, S.S., MacDonald, D.G., and Rennie, J.S., The effect of iron deficiency on experimental oral carcinogenesis in the rat, Br. J. Cancer, 47, 413, 1983.
155.
Lekholm, U. and Wallenius, K., Experimental oral cancer in rats with xerostomia, Odontol. Revy, 27, 11, 1976.
156.
Freedman, A. and Shklar, G., Alcohol and hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis, Oral Surg., 46, 794, 1978.
157.
Lurie, A.G., Enhancement of DMBA tumorigenesis in hamster cheek pouch epithelium by repeated exposures to low-level X radiation, Radiat. Res., 72, 499, 1977.
158.
Trickler, D. and Shklar, G., Prevention by vitamin E of experimental oral carcinogenesis, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 78, 165, 1987.
159.
Schwartz, J. and Shklar, G., Regression of experimental oral carcinomas by local injection of B-carotene and canthaxanthin, Nutr. Cancer, 11, 35, 1988.
160.
Miller, E.G., Formby, W.A., Rivera-Hidalgo, F., and Wright, J.M., Inhibition of hamster pouch carcinogenesis by green coffee beans, Oral Surg., 65, 745, 1988.
161.
Lam, L.K.T., Sparnins, V.L., and Wattenberg, L.W., Isolation and identification of kahweol palmitate and cafestol palmitate as active constituents in green coffee beans that enhance glutathione S-transferase activity in the mouse, Cancer Res., 42, 1193, 1982.
162.
Eisenberg, E. and Shklar, G., Levamisole and hamster pouch carcinogenesis, Oral Surg., 43, 562, 1977.
163.
Cottone, J.A., Kafrawy, A.H., Mitchell, D.F., and Standish, S.M., The effect of levamisole on DMBA-induced carcinogenesis in the hamster cheek pouch, J. Dent. Res., 58, 629, 1979.
164.
Giunta, J.L., Reif, A.E., and Shklar, G., Bacillus Calmette-Guerin and antilymphocyte serum in carcinogenesis. Effects on the hamster pouch, Arch. Pathol., 98, 237, 1974.
165.
, Elzay, R.P. and Regelson, W., Effect of pyran copolymer on DMBA experimental oral carcinogenesis in the golden Syrian hamster, J. Dent. Res., 55, 1138, 1976.
166.
Sabes, W.R., Chaudhry, A.P., and Gorlin, R.J., Effects of cortisone on chemical carcinogenesis in hamster pouch and submandibular salivary gland, J. Dent. Res., 42, 1118, 1963.
167.
Siegel, W.V. and Shklar, G., The effect of dimethyl sulfoxide and topical triamcinolone on chemical carcinogenesis of hamster buccal pouch, Oral Surg., 27, 772, 1969.
168.
Shklar, G., The effect of cortisone on the induction and development of hamster-pouch carcinomas, Oral Surg., 23, 241, 1967.
169.
Smith, C.J., Effects of carcinogen and cortisone on mast cells in the hamster cheek pouch, Br. J. Cancer, 21, 190, 1967.
170.
Mathur, A., Wallenius, K., and Abdulla, M., Influence of zinc on onset and progression of oral carcinogenesis in rats, Acta Odontol. Scand., 37, 277, 1979.
171.
Wallenius, K., Mathur, A., and Abdulla, A., Effect of different levels of dietary zinc on development of chemically induced oral cancer in rats, Int. J. Oral Surg., 8, 56, 1979.
172.
Poswillo, D.E. and Cohen, B., Inhibition of carcinogenesis by dietary zinc, Nature, 231, 447, 1971.
173.
Edwards, M.B., Chemical carcinogenesis in the cheek pouch of Syrian hamsters receiving supplementary zinc, Arch. Oral Biol., 21, 133, 1976.
174.
Fong, L.Y.Y., Sivak, A., and Newberne, P.M., Zinc deficiency and methylbenzylnitrosamine-induced esophageal cancer in rats, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 61, 145, 1978.
175.
Barch, D.H., Walloch, J., Hedvegi, D., and Iannaccone, P.M., Histopathology of methylbenzylnitrosamine-induced esophageal carcinoma in the rat: comparison with cytomorphology, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 77, 1145, 1986.
176.
Eveson, J.W., Animal models of intra-oral chemical carcinogenesis: A review, J. Oral Pathol., 10, 129, 1981.
177.
Billingham, R.E., Ferrigan, L.W., and Silvers, W.K., Cheek pouch of the Syrian hamster and tissue transplantation immunity, Science, 132, 1488, 1960.
178.
Walker, F., Carter, J., Crawford, G.P.M. et al., Hamster cheek pouch mucosubstances and immunological privilege, Br. J. Exp. Pathol., 51, 379, 1970.
179.
Ohne, M., Satoh, T., Yamada, S., and Takai, H., Experimental tongue carcinoma of rats induced by oral administration of 4-nitro-quinoline 1 -oxide (4NQO) in drinking water, Oral Surg., 59, 600, 1985.
