The authors explore the differences between adolescents who have a sense of belonging in their families and adolescents who do not using six variables: self-esteem, locus of control, sense of belonging in school, sense of belonging in the community, time spent with family, and level of involvement in school and community activities. The two groups were found to be significantly different with respect to all six variables. The importance of this research for clinicians working with adolescents and families is discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AnolikS. A. (1983). Family influences upon delinquency: Biosocial and psychosocial perspectives. Adolescence, 18, 489–498.
2.
BhattiB.DerezotesD.KimS., & SpechtH. (1989). The association between child maltreatment and self-esteem. In MeccaA. M.SmelserN. J., & VasconcellosJ. (Eds.), The social importance of self-esteem (pp. 24–71). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
3.
California State Department of Education. (1990). Toward a state of esteem.Sacramento, CA: Author.
4.
ChandlerT. A.WolfF. M.CookB., & DugovicsD. A. (1980). Parental correlates of locus of control in fifth graders: An attempt at experimentation in the home. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 26, 183–195.
5.
ChiamH. (1987). Change in self-concept during adolescence. Adolescence, 22, 69–76.
6.
ComerJ. P.HaynesN. M.Hamilton–LeeM.BogerJ., & RollockD. (1987). Dimensions of children's self-concept as predictors of social competence. Journal of Social Psychology, 127, 321–329.
7.
CrandallV. C., & CrandallB. W. (1983). Maternal and childhood behaviors as antecedents of internal-external control perceptions in young adulthood. In LefcourtH. M. (Ed.), Research with the locus of control construct: Developments and social problems (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.
8.
CriderD. M.WillitsF. K., & FunkR. B. (1985). Leisure-time activities of rural young people: Youth reports and adult perceptions. (Bulletin 858). College of Agriculture, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.
9.
DiCindioL. A.FloydH. H.WilcoxJ., & McSeveneyD. R. (1983). Race effects in a model of parent–peer orientation. Adolescence, 18, 369–379.
10.
DuncanD. F. (1978). Attitudes towards parents and delinquency in suburban adolescent males. Adolescence, 13, 356–369.
11.
EdwardsD. W. (1979). Coping preference, adaptive roles and varied high school environments: A search for person–environment transactions. In KellyJ. G. (Ed.), Adolescent boys in high school: A psychological study of coping and adaptation (pp. 81–97). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
12.
EdwardsD. W., & KellyJ. G. (1980). Coping and adaptation: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Community Psychology, 8, 203–215.
13.
EkstromR. B.GoertzM. E.PollackJ. M., & RockD. A. (1986). Who drops out of high school and why? Findings from a national study. Teachers College Record, 87, 356–373.
14.
EriksonE. H. (1950). Childhood and society.New York: W. W. Norton.
15.
EskilsonA.WileyM. G.MuehlbauerG., & DodderL. (1986). Parental pressure, self-esteem and adolescent reported deviance: Bending the twig too far. Adolescence, 21, 501–515.
16.
GlasserW. (1984). Control theory: A new explanation of how we control our lives.New York: Harper and Row.
17.
HarterS. (1990). Processes underlying adolescent self-concept formation. In MontemayorR.AdamsG. R., & GullottaT. P. (Eds.), From childhood to adolescence: A transitional period? (pp. 205–239). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
18.
KrogerJ. (1989). Identity in adolescence: The balance between self and other.New York: Routledge.
19.
LefcourtH. M. (1976). Locus of control: Current trends in theory and research.New York: John Wiley.
20.
McMillanD. W., & HiltonsmithR. W. (1982). Adolescent at home: An exploratory study of the relationship between perception of family social climate, general well-being, and actual behavior in the home setting. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 11, 301–315.
21.
MillerD. T. (1978). Locus of control and ability to tolerate gratification delay: When is it better to be an external?Journal of Research in Personality, 12, 49–56.
22.
NowickiS., & DukeM. P. (1983). The Nowicki-Strickland life-span locus of control scales: Construct validation. In LefcourtH. M. (Ed.), Research with the locus of control construct: Developments and social problems (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.
23.
NowickiS., & SchneewindK. (1982). Relation of family climate variables to locus of control in German and American students. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 141, 277–286.
24.
NowickiS., & StricklandB. (1973). A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40, 148–154.
25.
NunnG. D. (1988). Concurrent validity between the Nowicki-Strickland locus of control scale and the state-trait anxiety inventory for children. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 48, 435–438.
26.
OfferD.OstrovF., & HowardK. I. (1982). Family perceptions of adolescent self-image. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 11, 281–291.
27.
O'MalleyP. M., & BachmanJ. G. (1983). Self-esteem: Change and stability between ages 13 and 23. Developmental Psychology, 19, 257–268.
28.
PretoN. G., & TravisN. (1985). The adolescent phase of the family life cycle. In MirkinM. P., & KomanS. L. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent and family therapy (pp. 21–38). New York: Gardner Press.
29.
RobinsonJ. P., & ShaverP. P. (1973). Measures of social psychological attitudes.New York: Institute for Social Research.
30.
RosenbergM. (1979). Conceiving the self.Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing.
31.
RosenbergM. (1989). Society and the adolescent self-image.Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
32.
RubensteinE. (1991). An overview of adolescent development, behavior, and clinical intervention. Families in Society, 72, 220–225.
33.
SteitzJ. A., & OwenT. P. (1988, April). Extracurricular activities and adolescent self-esteem: A multivariate study. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association's Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA.
34.
StricklandB. R. (1973). Delay of gratification and internal locus of control in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40, 338.
35.
WatermanA. S. (1982). Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of theory and a review of research. Developmental Psychology, 18, 341–358.
36.
WillitsW. L., & WillitsF. K. (1986). Adolescent participation in leisure activities: “The less, the more” or “the more, the more.”Leisure Sciences, 8, 189–205.
